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21 agosto, 2011

FUSION FRIA: Reactor nuclear de fusión que funciona a temperatura ambiente.

Fusión nuclear fría (reactor de fusión niquel-hidrógeno)

Demasiado fácil y demasiado barato. ¿Podría ser cierto?

La supuesta panacea energética que “descubrieron” Pons y Fleischmann en el año 1989 se está poniendo de moda nuevamente en los laboratorios internacionales. En aquellos primeros tiempos el mundo consideró una estafa el experimento original pero actualmente se ha relanzado la investigación sobre este asunto porque algunos piensan que existen ciertos visos de convertirse en realidad. ¿La solución de todos nuestros problemas o se trata sólo del ansia científica por encontrar soluciones universales? 

La demostración pública de su novedoso reactor nuclear, un logro que se consideraba casi imposible, suscita las sospechas de parte de la comunidad científica. 

Firmada por José Manuel Nieves, esta noticia apereció el  25/01/2011, en varias publicaciones internacionales sin que tuviera mayores repercusiones. Hoy, con los sucesos del terremoto/maremoto de Japón, cobra particular interés.
Dos científicos italianos de la Universidad de Bolonia realizaron la demostración pública de un reactor nuclear de fusión que funciona a temperatura ambiente y que puede producir hasta 31 veces más energía de la que consume. Andrea Rossi y Sergio Focardi aseguraron que su invento ya se encuentra en fase comercial, que han firmado contratos con importantes empresas y que comenzarán a fabricarlo masivamente a finales de este mismo año. "Ya hemos superado la fase de tener que convencer a alguien -dijo Rossi-. La competición ahora está en el mercado".
Pocas áreas científicas han suscitado más controversias que la fusión fría, la hipotética reacción nuclear a temperatura ambiente en la que dos núcleos atómicos se unen para formar uno mayor mientras liberan una gran cantidad de energía. En la década de los 80, Stanley Pons y Martin Fleishmann anunciaron al mundo que habían conseguido la fusión fría, lo que suponía una fuente de energía inagotable y barata, al alcance de todos. Pero su experimento no pudo ser reproducido por otros laboratorios.
Desde entonces y hasta ahora, se han realizado varios anuncios más, aunque ninguno de ellos ha sido legitimado. Es más, varios estudios parecen demostrar que la fusión fría es teóricamente improbable, lo que ha ido apartando de ese campo de estudio a la mayoría de los científicos.
Sin embargo, y a pesar del escepticismo reinante, una pequeña comunidad de investigadores sigue trabajando en las reacciones de fusión a temperatura ambiente. Y las últimas noticias al respecto se produjeron la semana pasada, cuando los italianos Andrea Rossi y Sergio Focardi, ambos de la Universidad de Bolonia, anunciaron haber fabricado un reactor de fusión fría capaz de producir 12.400 vatios de energía calórica con una inversión previa de sólo 400 watios.
Menos de un céntimo por kilovatio
El pasado viernes, los investigadores realizaron una demostración, durante una rueda de prensa en Bolonia, de su ingenio, al que llaman reactor de fusión niquel-hidrógeno. Y lo que es más, anunciaron que empezarán a comercializar su invento durante los próximos tres meses, y que comenzarán a producirlo masivamente hacia finales de este mismo año.
Según explicaron Rossi y Focardi, cuando los núcleos de niquel e hidrógeno se fusionan en el interior de su reactor, la reacción produce cobre y una gran cantidad de energía. El reactor utiliza menos de un gramo de hidrógeno y su arranque requiere unos 1.000 vatios de electricidad, que se reduce a 400 watios en cuestión de minutos. Por cada minuto de funcionamiento, la reacción consigue convertir 292 gramos de agua a 20 grados en vapor seco a más de 100 grados de temperatura. Y dado que elevar en 80 grados la temperatura del agua requiere cerca de 12.400 watios de energía, calcularon que el experimento produjo 31 veces más energía que la utilizada para llevarla a cabo (12.400/400 = 31).
Con estas premisas, Rossi y Focardi estimaron que se podría generar electricidad a un coste inferior a un céntimo por kilovatio, una cantidad muy inferior a la que se consigue con los métodos actuales.
Durante el tiempo en que el reactor estuvo funcionando, Rossi y Focardi demostraron que se estaba produciendo una pequeña cantidad deradiación gamma, lo que indica que en el interior del ingenio, efectivamente, estaba teniendo lugar una reacción nuclear. Vamos, que no había trampa ni cartón. En su inminente versión comercial, dijeron, los reactores tendrán limitada su capacidad y producirán "solo" ocho veces más energía de la que utilizan, para garantizar la seguridad en todo momento.
El proceso, además, no libera radiación fuera del reactor, y no produce residuo nuclear alguno. Los reactores, por último, son modulares y pueden alinearse, en serie o en paralelo, para alcanzar prácticamente cualquier potencia que se desee. Según aseguraron, actualmente están construyendo una planta de un megawatio con 125 módulos como el utilizado durante la demostración.
Los científicos dijeron también que uno de sus reactores lleva trabajando continuamente desde hace ya dos años, suministrando energía a una pequeña fábrica, aunque no quisieron dar más detalles al respecto.
Desconfianza
A pesar de todo, el artículo científico de Rossi y Focardi sobre su reactor nuclear ha sido rechazado por varias publicaciones científicas. Lo que no les ha impedido publicarlo en The Journal of Nuclear Physics, una revista online fundada y mantenida por ellos mismos. Un hecho que no ha hecho más que aumentar la desconfianza hacia ellos y sus supuestos logros. En su artículo, en efecto, se dan muy pocos detalles sobre la forma en que el reactor funciona. Los mismos científicos aseguran desconocer los detalles que subyacen al proceso de fusión, y consideran que se necesitan más estudios, aunque eso, aseguran, no cambia el hecho de que su invento funciona.
Durante la rueda de prensa, ambos aseguraron que disponen ya de jugosos contratos comerciales y que han preferido no revelar demasiados detalles porque están bajo secreto de patente. "Ya hemos superado la fase de tener que convencer a alguien -dijo Rossi-. Y hemos llegado a un producto que está listo para salir al mercado. Nuestro juez será el mercado mismo. Y en este terreno, la fase de competición en el campo de las teorías, las hipótesis, las conjeturas, etc, etc, está más que superada. La competición está en el mercado. Si alguien tiene una tecnología válida, ese alguien no tiene que convencer a la gente a base de charlas, tiene que construir un reactor que funcione y salir a venderlo, como nosotros estamos haciendo".

VIDEOS sobre FISION FRIA


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Energy Catalyzer



The Energy Catalyzer is an apparatus built by inventor[1] Andrea Rossi,[2] with support from his scientific consultant and physicist[3] Sergio Focardi. The patent application[4] states that the device transforms energy stored in its fuel (hydrogen and nickel) into heat by means of cold fusion of the two components, with a consequent observed production of copper.[5] One statement by Rossi stated that it is not cold fusion, but rather LENR, low-energy (or weak force) nuclear reaction.[6] A similar system, but yielding considerably less power, had previously been described by Forcadi et al.[7]
According to Focardi, "the hydrogen is heated at a given temperature with a simple resistor. When the ignition temperature is reached, the energy production process starts: the hydrogen atoms penetrate into the nickel and transform it into copper.”[8]
An application in 2008 to patent the device had received an unfavorable preliminary report on patentability from the European Patent Office,[9] noting that the description of the device was based on "general statements and speculations", and citing "numerous deficiencies in both the description and in the evidence provided to support its feasibility". However, on 6 April 2011 an application was approved by the Italian Office for Patents and Trademarks, which issued a patent for the invention.[10][11]

Contents

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January 2011 demonstration

The apparatus was demonstrated in an industrial hangar outside Bologna to invited journalists and scientists on January 14, 2011.[12] During the demonstration, which lasted for about one hour, the reactor was "ignited" with electrical current passing through a resistance. It was claimed that the electrical power fed to the apparatus was about 1 kW on average (although reduced to about 400 watts for a few minutes), and that it produced heat energy of approximately 12 kW which was used to evaporate water. The water temperature was raised from 20°C to about 101 °C and the output was claimed to be dry steam. A power gain factor of about 30 is claimed.[13]
The intensity of the radiation emitted from the part of the apparatus where the alleged fusion process is taking place was measured both before and after ignition.[14] No significant difference in activity was detected when the apparatus was in an idle and "working" mode. This result conflicts with current theoretical and experimental knowledge of nuclear fusion processes and interaction between radiation and matter, according to which excess radiation would be generated, allowed to escape the apparatus, and subsequently detected. However, different considerations may apply at these very low energies.[15] No gamma ray spectroscopy was performed owing to restrictions by Rossi and Focardi.[14]
Giuseppe Levi [16], a nuclear physicist from INFN, helped organize the demonstration. He confirmed that the reactor produced about 12 kW and also stated that the energy was not likely to be of chemical origin since there was no measurable hydrogen consumption.[13]

18 hour test

Levi strengthened his statement, saying that all chemical energy sources were excluded, after another test which was performed in Bologna from February 10 until February 11, 2011, and which lasted for 18 hours. In this test, to avoid uncertainties related to the boiling of the water the flow rate was increased, so that while the water increased in temperature it did not boil. This test was performed by Levi and Rossi and was not public. [17]
According to Levi the process was 'ignited' by an electrical resistance powered with approximately 1,250 watts for ten minutes. The input power was subsequently decreased to less than 100 watts, enough to maintain operation of the electronic equipment controlling the process. The unit was loaded with hydrogen before ignition, and the test was then run with the hydrogen bottle closed. Total consumption of hydrogen was, according to Levi, at the most 0.4 grams. The output power was in excess of 15 kW, corresponding to a total energy release during the trial of approximately 1 GJ (gigajoule), more than is available from any non-nuclear energy source.[17]

Bologna, March 2011 tests

In March 29, 2011 two Swedish physicists, Hanno Essén, associate professor of theoretical physics and a lecturer at the Swedish Royal Institute of Technology and former chairman of the Swedish Skeptics Society and Sven Kullander, Professor Emeritus at Uppsala University and also chairman of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences’ Energy Committee, participated as observers in a test of a smaller version of the Energy Catalyzer.[18] The test ran for six hours and the calculated energy produced was about 25 kWh. [19] In their report [20] they write "Any chemical process should be ruled out for producing 25 kWh from whatever is in a 50 cubic centimeter container. The only alternative explanation is that there is some kind of a nuclear process that gives rise to the measured energy production." According to Mats Lewan of the Swedish technology magazine Ny Teknik[19], they were given a sample of the nickel powder used in the unit as well as some Rossi says have been used for 2.5 months; analysis showed the unused powder was pure nickel while the used powder contained 10 percent copper and 11 percent iron, although iron production is not mentioned anywhere in the patent[21]. They prefaced their discussion in the report with a disclaimer: "Since we do not have access to the internal design of the central fuel container and no information on the external lead shielding and the cooling water system we can only make very general comments."

Bologna, April 2011 tests

On April 19[22] and April 28[23] two more demonstrations were held. The first of them[24] was also covered by the Italian 24-hour all-news State-owned television channel Rai News.[25][26][27] This time a Ny Teknik author attended and tested for some previously noted possibilities of fraud. He therefore calibrated the ammeter, measured the water flow by weighing and calibrated the temperature-sensor probe to confirm that all water is converted to steam.[28] The measurements showed a net power of between 2.3 and 2.6 kilowatts. The input power was 300 watts.

Evaluation of the device

The mechanism by which the Energy Catalyzer generates excess energy – if it does so – is not known. Rossi says in his patent [21] that this is a fusion process involving nickel and hydrogen, forming copper. This fusion reaction should, under the assumption that the branching ratio is the same under the conditions of the E-Cat process as it is for the much higher energies involved in standard nuclear studies, generate substantial amounts of gamma radiation, both directly and as the result of electron-positron annihilation. However, none was detected during a public demonstration of their device in January 2011. In 2008, Rossi's patent application received an unfavorable preliminary report on patentability,[29] citing serious deficiencies in both the description of the device and in the evidence provided to support its feasibility. The patent application was published on October 15, 2009.[21] A subsequent patent application was approved in April 2011.[10]
Rossi and Focardi have been unable to publish their work in a peer-reviewed scientific journal,[30] instead presenting their work in Rossi's self-published blog titled the Journal of Nuclear Physics. Related work by Forcardi[7] has been published in the journal Il Nuovo Cimento A.

Commercial plans

Rossi has announced an agreement with the newly formed Greek company Defkalion Green Technologies as his first client.[31][32] According to Rossi, the agreement calls for delivery of a one megawatt heating plant, consisting of 300 reactors of 4 kW [19] connected in series and parallel. The plant which would supply heating for Defkalion's own purposes only, is supposed to be inaugurated in October 2011. [33]
Rossi says he will not be paid by Defkalion until the installation is delivered and works.[34] The company’s spokesman Symeon Tsalikoglou has confirmed the agreement.[35][36]
Defkalion has also been featured on national Greek television [37][38] and in the national business newspaper Ependitis. [39] According to Defkalion and Rossi the agreement gives exclusive rights for Defkalion to manufacture and sell the energy catalyzer throughout Greece.[35]

See also

References

  1. Ufficio Italiano Brevetti e Marchi (Italian Office for Patents and Trademarks)
    TITLE: "processo ed apparecchiatura per ottenere reazioni esotermiche, in particolare da nickel ed idrogeno."
    (TRANSLATION: "process and equipment to obtain exothermal reactions, in particular from nickel and hydrogen")
    N. Brevetto 0001387256
    Data Deposito: 09 aprile 2008,
    Data Brevetto 06 aprile 2011,
    Inventori: Andrea Rossi.
  2. ^ Cold Fusion: “You have to embrace this”, Mats Lewan, Ny Teknik, February 23, 2011
  3. ^ http://www.df.unibo.it/personale/prof_emeriti.htm Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Bologna, Professori emeriti
  4. ^ Rossi, Andrea. "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CARRYING OUT NICKEL AND HYDROGEN EXOTHERMAL REACTIONS". World Intellectual Propety Organisation. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
  5. ^ S. Focardi; A. Rossi (2010-03-22). "A new energy source from nuclear fusion". Ny Teknik.
  6. ^ A. Rossi (2011-01-31). "Energy Catalyzer: It Works and It's Not Fusion". New Energy Times.
  7. ^ a b Forcadi, S. et al. (November 1998). "Large excess heat production in Ni-H systems". Il Nuovo Cimento A 111 (11): 1233-1242.
  8. ^ Fabio Deotto. "Fusione fredda realizzata a Bologna. Sarà vero?" (in Italian). Daily Wired..
  9. ^ International Preliminary Report on Patentability
  10. ^ a b METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CARRYING OUT NICKEL AND HYDROGEN EXOTHERMAL REACTIONS (WO/2009/125444)
  11. ^ Ny Teknik: Patent granted for the energy catalyzer
  12. ^ January 15th Focardi and Rossi press conference, 2011-01-14 (self published source)
  13. ^ a b Giuseppe Levi (2011-01-14), "Report on heat production during preliminary tests on the Rossi "Ni-H" reactor", esowatch.com[unreliable source?]
  14. ^ a b "On the gamma radiation measurements on the Rossi system", Journal of Nuclear Physics, 2011-01-26[unreliable source?]
  15. ^ Li, Xing Zhong, et al. (2000). "Sub-barrier fusion and selective resonant tunneling". Phys. Rev. C 61(2), 024610. Bibcode 2000PhRvC..61b4610L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.61.024610.This paper is one of many attempts that have been made to account for the apparent enhancements of reaction rates observed in LENR experiments.
  16. ^ Giuseppe Levi. "Curriculum Vitae". Università di Bologna. (primary source)
  17. ^ a b Lewan, Mats (February 23, 2011). "Cold Fusion: 18 hour test excludes combustion". Ny Teknik.
  18. ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vt2JqEmaUGc Inteview with Sven Kullander and Hanno Essén (Swedish w. English subtitles)
  19. ^ a b c Lewan, Mats, Swedish physicists on the E-cat ″It’s a nuclear reaction″, Ny Teknik
  20. ^ Hanno Essén, Sven Kullander (April 3, 2011), Experimental test of a mini-Rossi device at the Leonardocorp, Bologna, 29 March 2011, Ny Teknik
  21. ^ a b c WO 2009125444, "Method and apparatus for carrying out nickel and hydrogen exothermal reactions"
  22. ^ Lewan, Mats (April 19, 2011). Ny Teknik. http://www.nyteknik.se/incoming/article3166567.ece/BINARY/Report+test+of+E-cat+19+April+2011.pdf.
  23. ^ Lewan, Mats (April 28, 2011). Ny Teknik. http://www.nyteknik.se/incoming/article3166569.ece/BINARY/Report+test+of+E-cat+28+April+2011.pdf.
  24. ^ [1]
  25. ^ [2] Rai News on Thursday, May 5th at 20:35
  26. ^ http://www.rainews24.rai.it/it/canale-tv.php?id=23074 Here you can find the reportage of Rai News about the E-Cat (in Italian)
  27. ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZGI12A3SWJ4 The reportage (in Italian) can be also watched on the channel of Rai News on youtube
  28. ^ Lewan, Mats. Ny Teknik. http://www.nyteknik.se/nyheter/energi_miljo/energi/article3166552.ece.
  29. ^ International Preliminary Report on Patentability
  30. ^ "Italian scientists claim cold fusion success". EE Times. January 24, 2011.
  31. ^ "Defkalion Green Technologies". http://www.defkalion-energy.com/.
  32. ^ http://www.xanthipress.gr/eidiseis/politiki/6874-xynidis-ependysi-hyperion-xanthi-ydrogono-nikelio-paragogi-energeias-ergostasio-xanthi.html
  33. ^ Lewan, Mats (February 2, 2011). "Cold fusion may provide one megawatt in Athens". Ny Teknik.
  34. ^ Lewan, Mats (March 10, 2011). "This is how Rossi is financing his E-cat". Ny Teknik.
  35. ^ a b Lewan, Mats (February 7, 2011). "Cold Fusion: Here's the Greek company building 1 MW". Ny Teknik.
  36. ^ http://www.xanthipress.gr/eidiseis/koinonia/6914-defkalion-yperion-synenteyxi-diloseis-tsalikoglou.html
  37. ^ NET. February 7, 2011. http://talefta.blogspot.com/2011/02/dekalion-green-tecnologies-confirmed.html. (mirror)
  38. ^ Ny Teknik: Cold Fusion: Here's the Greek company building 1 MW
  39. ^ επενδυτης. March 12, 2011. http://talefta.blogspot.com/2011/03/new-mainstream-coverage-of-e-cat-and.html. (self published source)

External links


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Swedish physicists on the E-cat: “It’s a nuclear reaction”




“In some way a new kind of physics is taking place. It’s enigmatic, but probably no new laws of nature are involved. We believe it is possible to explain the process with known laws of nature,” said Hanno Essén, associate professor of theoretical physics and a lecturer at the Swedish Royal Institute of Technology and chairman member of the board(chairman until April 2) of the Swedish Skeptics Society.
Essén and Professor Emeritus at Uppsala University Sven Kullander, also chairman of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences’ Energy Committee, both participated on 29 March as observers at a new trial in Bologna of the so-called ‘energy catalyzer’, which could be based on cold fusion, or LENR, Low Energy Nuclear Reaction.
Participants included the inventor of the device, Andrea Rossi, his scientific advisor Professor Sergio Focardi, and physicists Dr. David Bianchini and Dr. Giuseppe Levi from Bologna University who both supervised the first public demonstration of the E-cat on 14 January 2011 in Bologna, Italy.
The new trial was conducted in much the same way as the trial in January, and lasted for nearly six hours. According to observations by Kullander and Essén, a total energy of about 25 kWh was generated.
In a detailed report (download here), they write:
“Any chemical process should be ruled out for producing 25 kWh from whatever is in a 50 cubic centimeter container. The only alternative explanation is that there is some kind of a nuclear process that gives rise to the measured energy production.”
The power output was estimated to about 4.4 kW. It’s barely half the power compared with the two previous documented experiments in January and February 2011, because the trial was made with a new and smaller version of the energy catalyzer.
The new trial was the first officially documented with the smaller version which, according to Rossi, is more stable.
“With the smaller version we avoid the power peaks that occurred at ignition and switching off,” Andrea Rossi told Ny Teknik.
He also stated that the smaller version will be used for the planned installation of about one megawatt for the pilot customer Defkalion Green Technologies in Greece.
According to Rossi, a total of 300 reactors connected in series and parallel, will be used in the installation. Originally 100 reactors of the version that delivered 10 kW of power during earlier trials, were supposedly planned for the one-megawatt installation. Rossi still expects the inauguration to take place in October 2011.
At the trial in Bologna, Kullander and Essén could investigate the energy catalyzer with the surrounding insulation and the lead shielding stripped away. The exterior design is described in their report.
The reactor itself, which is loaded with the nickel powder and secret catalysts pressurized with hydrogen, has an estimated volume of 50 cubic centimeters (3.2 cubic inches). The reactor is made of stainless steel.
A copper tube surrounds the steel reactor. The water to be heated flows between the steel and the copper. In operation, the construction is also surrounded by insulation and a lead shielding with a thickness of approximately two centimeters (0.8 inches).
Before starting, Kullander and Essén calibrated the water flow and estimated it at 6.5 kg per hour. The power required to heat the flowing water from 18 degrees and convert it completely into steam was calculated to 4.7 kW.
They also filled the reactor with hydrogen at a pressure of about 25 bars. The reactor was according to Rossi loaded with 50 grams of nickel powder.
As in previous trials the process was ‘ignited’ with an electrical resistance. Input power was 330 watts, of which about 30 watts were required to operate the electronics.
A phenomenon that Kullander and Essén noted was that the curve for the water temperature at the output showed a steady increase up to about 60 degrees centigrade, after which the increase escalated.
“The curve then became steeper, it clearly had a new derivative. At the same time there was no increase in power consumption, it rather decreased when it got warmer,” said Essén.
In their report they note that it took nine minutes to go from 20 to 60 degrees centigrade, which corresponds to the heating from the input electrical power. Going from 60 to 97.5 degrees centigrade, by contrast, just took four minutes.
Throughout the experiment Kullander and Essén had the opportunity to examine the equipment.
“We checked everything that could be checked, and we could walk around freely and have a look at most of the equipment,” said Essén.
“We looked specifically into the big control unit (with electronics) and it contains mostly rectifiers and passive components – there was nothing of interest in it,” said Kullander, which is in line of what Dr. Levi previously noted.
Kullander and Essén had their first contact with Rossi in mid February, at the time of a discussion of the physics in the energy catalyzer, organized by Ny Teknik. After getting answers from Rossi to several questions, they expressed a cautiously optimistic opinion about the technology.
At a first meeting with Rossi at the end of February they were given access to a sample of the pure nickel powder, intended for use in the energy catalyzer, and another sample of nickel powder which, according to Rossi, had been used in the reactor for 2.5 months.
Their analyses showed that the pure powder consists of essentially pure nickel, while the used powder contains several other substances, mainly 10 percent copper and 11 percent iron.
“Provided that copper is not one of the additives used as catalyst, the copper isotopes 63 and 65 can only have been formed during the process. Their presence is therefore a proof that nuclear reactions took place in the process,” Kullander said (see further details below).
The meeting in February in turn led to their involvement in the new trial in Bologna.
“My belief that there is an energy development far beyond what one would expect has been strengthened significantly as I have had the opportunity to see the process for myself and perform measurements,” said Kullander.
“Everything that we’ve found so far fits together. There is nothing that seems to be strange. All people seem to be honest and competent,” Essén added.
In line of what they expressed during the discussion in February, they believe that the physics of the energy catalyzer may possibly be explained by a combination of atomic, molecular, nuclear and plasma physics. At the same time they are skeptical of detailed and hypothetical theories suggested at this stage, and stressed instead the need for more data.
They describe that Focardi and Levi have the same approach, and support their viewpoint.
Focardi, who has been working with Rossi during the development of the energy catalyzer, is Emeritus Professor at the University of Bologna, while Levi will now be responsible for researching the energy catalyzer at the Physics Department of Bologna University, commissioned by Rossi, who pays 500,000 Euro according to an agreement between his company Leonardo Corporation and the university.
Kullander and Essén are not involved in this project.
During their visit to Bologna they met with the Rector of the Bologna University, Professor Ivano Dionigi, and had a discussion with him, Rossi, Focardi, Levi and Bianchini on the project. According to Kullander and Levi, future collaborative research is possible.


The used powder contains ten percent copper

Analyses of the nickel powder used in Rossi’s energy catalyzer show that a large amount of copper is formed. Sven Kullander considers this to be evidence of a nuclear reaction.
For copper to be formed out of nickel, the nucleus of nickel has to capture a proton. The fact that this possibly occurs in Rossi’s reactor is why the concept of cold fusion has been mentioned – it would consist of fusion between nuclei of nickel and hydrogen.
A term that many consider to be more accurate, however, is LENR, Low Energy Nuclear Reaction.
Ny Teknik: For how long has the powder supposedly been used in the process?
Kullander: The powder has reportedly been used for 2.5 months continuously with an output of 10 kW (according to Rossi). It corresponds to a total energy of 18 MWh, with a consumption of up to 100 grams of nickel and two grams of hydrogen. If the production had been done with oil, two tons of oil would have been required.
Ny Teknik: What analyses have you done on the powders?
Kullander: Element analysis and isotopic analysis. At the Ångström Laboratory in Uppsala, Sweden, element analysis has been made using X-ray Fluorescence (XRFS). Dr. Erik Lindahl undertook the investigation. At the Biomedical Center in Uppsala, both element analysis and isotope analysis has been done through Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Associate Professor Jean Pettersson has made the measurement.
Ny Teknik: What results have you obtained from the analyses?
Kullander: Both measurements show that the pure nickel powder contains mainly nickel, and the used powder is different in that several elements are present, mainly 10 percent copper and 11 percent iron. The isotopic analysis through ICP-MS doesn’t show any deviation from the natural isotopic composition of nickel and copper.
Ny Teknik: How do you interpret the results?
Kullander: Provided that copper is not one of the additives used as catalyst, the copper isotopes 63 and 65 can only have been formed during the process. Their presence is therefore a proof that nuclear reactions took place in the process. However, it’s remarkable that nickel-58 and hydrogen can form copper-63 (70%) and copper-65 (30%). This means that in the process, the original nickel-58 should have grown by five and seven atomic mass-units, respectively, during the nuclear transmutation. However, there are two stable isotopes of nickel with low concentration, nickel-62 and nickel-64, which could conceivably contribute to copper production. According to Rossi copper is not among the additives. 100 grams of nickel had been used during 2.5 months of continuous heating with 10 kW output power. A straightforward calculation shows that a large proportion of the nickel must have been consumed if it was ‘burned’ in a nuclear process. It’s then somewhat strange that the isotopic composition doesn’t differ from the natural.
Ny Teknik: What further analyses are you planning?
Kullander: We have not planned anything definite. If it’s possible to refine the isotopic measurements, further isotopic measurements would be important mainly to get a better accuracy in the field of 60 to 65 atomic mass units. We have also discussed with Rossi installing an energy catalyzer at a laboratory in Uppsala to perform more detailed measurements. These could be part of a scientific collaboration with the Bologna University.
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