ENERGÍA

2011-12-09T12:12:00.000-08:00

PRONUNCIAMIENTO DEL SEIPEN

2011-11-08T12:10:00.000-08:00

PRONUNCIAMIENTO SEIPEN!!!!

de Sindicato Empleados Ipen, el Sábado, 15 de octubre de 2011, 11:35

SINDICATO DE EMPLEADOS DEL INSTITUTO PERUANO DE ENERGIA NUCLEAR-SEIPEN

Reconocido por el Ministerio de Trabajo el 18 de Diciembre de 1985

Domicilio Legal: Calle Villacarrillo N° 213 Urb. Higuereta-Surco- teléfono 4481429

Afiliado a la Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú-CGTP

PRONUNCIAMIENTO

Al Señor Carlos Federico Barreda Tamayo

Presidente de IPEN

Ante el contenido del Comunicado No. 048-11-IPEN-REHU de fecha 10 de Octubre, dirigido a los trabajadores y publicado a través del POSTMASTER institucional, el SEIPEN, como ente representativo de los trabajadores y en pleno uso de sus facultades previstas en su Estatuto y bajo el amparo de la Constitución Política del Estado, se ve en la obligación de emitir el presente PRONUNCIAMIENTO, mediante el cual expresa su total rechazo y desacuerdo con dicho comunicado y con las acciones que vienen afectando recurrentemente el clima laboral dentro de la institución, vulnerando no sólo los derechos de los trabajadores sino también los intereses institucionales.

En consecuencia, hacemos público nuestro rechazo por las razones siguientes:

La Administración a través del Comunicado No. 048-11-IPEN-REHU de fecha 10 de Octubre, ha puesto en conocimiento de los trabajadores la próxima convocatoria al Concurso Interno de "Ascenso", que de quedar desierto, pasaría a convocarse a Concurso Público de Méritos.
De acuerdo con dicho documento, el objetivo de la convocatoria anunciada sería "dar la oportunidad a los trabajadores vía concurso interno para un ascenso", sin embargo, se lanza a concurso aquellas plazas cuyas funciones vienen siendo ejercidas por trabajadores con contratos desnaturalizados y con juicios en curso seguidos por estos para que se les reconozca la condición de trabajadores contratados a plazo indeterminado, tiempo de servicios (por más de cinco años) y nivel de carrera correspondiente. Es decir que discrimina a los trabajadores con contrato a plazo fijo, bajo el régimen CAS y a los reincorporados luego de haber sido despedidos durante el gobierno dictatorial de Alberto Fujimori.
Vemos con suma preocupación que las 14 plazas "reordenadas" por no decir fraccionadasrecientemente y que suponemos fueron diseñadas conforme al ROF vigente, en su mayoría son administrativas, no habiéndose tomado en cuenta que somos una institución científico tecnológica, y que como tal requerimos reforzar nuestras áreas técnicas.
Notamos también que dicho "reordenamiento" se ha realizado con premura y sin sustento técnico, sin tomar en cuenta la meritocracia ni el tipo de trabajo especializado que se realiza, por lo que consideramos que este accionar debe replantearse y llevarlo a cabo sin apresuramientos, pues la marcha de las actividades institucionales no se vería afectada seriamente si "reordenan el reordenamiento".
Deducimos entonces que estos concursos terminarán siendo finalmente públicos, porque no son transparentes y estarían dirigidos a personal que recientemente ha ingresado a nuestra institución y a otros que vienen siendo cuestionados por su desempeño ético y laboral.
La convocatoria materia de este pronunciamiento, ha incumplido con lo dispuesto en el Título Tercero, Cláusulas Quinta, Sexta, Sétima y Octava del Convenio Colectivo vigente, en el que se ha dejado claramente establecido que ambas partes se comprometen a velar por la aprobación de un CAP que responda a la misión del IPEN y considere el perfil y requisitos establecidos en el clasificador de cargos; para la cobertura de plazas, que el IPEN respetaría el plan de carrera vigente y garantizaría el cumplimiento de su misión y especialización institucional de acuerdo a las normas legales vigentes.
Si bien hasta el momento se esta dando una figura legal al convocar en forma interna el concurso de plazas, reiteramos nuestras sospechas fundadas, dado que dichas vacantes no serán cubiertas por el personal actual vía ascenso, sino que éstas tendrán que pasar a concurso externo, porque el perfil de varias de las plazas concursables, no concuerdan con el del personal a plazo indeterminado que también estaría siendo relegado. Es decir que serían declaradas desiertas para luego de ello convocar a concurso público, y de este modo probablemente ser ocupadas por personal "allegado" a su gestión.
Le recordamos que el reciente concurso de T4 que inicialmente tenía el perfil para un Químico, fue cubierto por un técnico electrónico, sin embargo, anteriormente la plaza fue declarada desierta para un técnico en sistemas de información, bajo el pretexto según el cual el candidato no cumplía con los requisitos y no tenía el puntaje mínimo (presentación de su certificado de técnico). Lo más extraño es que en varios de los concursos internos llevados a cabo con anterioridad, si se cubrieron las plazas con puntajes mínimos que extrañamente allí si bajaron.
Del mismo modo, le recordamos que existe un expediente en SERVIR, pendiente de ser resuelto, por la impugnación al concurso para la plaza T5 de la Dirección de TTEC, pronunciamiento que necesariamente debió ser esperado por la Administración, para seguir convocando a concursos de plazas.
Dejamos sentada además la sospechosa actitud de los miembros de la comisión negociadora del IPEN, en la reunión de trato directo del día 07 de octubre del presente año, en vista que dicha comisión nos propuso "eliminar" del Proyecto de Pliego de Reclamos, el Título Segundo: "Organización del trabajo"(Cláusula Cuarta) y modificar en forma sustancial el Título Tercero "Clasificación Ocupacional y Cobertura de Plazas" bajo el pretexto que ambos títulos aún vigentes(Convenio Colectivo 2010-2011) son una "ingerencia del trabajador en la gestión del Presidente". Le recordamos que este es el tercer Convenio Colectivo que discutimos con la actual administración, habiéndose ratificado año a año dichos títulos, que gozan de más de seis años de antigüedad. Las anteriores comisiones negociadoras bajo su administración, jamás nos hicieron una propuesta igual, que implique eliminar cláusulas o no mencionarlas, pues ellas constituyen derechos adquiridos de nuestros trabajadores afiliados.
La actual comisión designada por usted, se comprometió en hacernos llegar el martes 11 de Octubre su nueva propuesta escrita para que la evaluemos, que se ha hecho efectiva el miércoles 12 al final de la tarde. En dicha propuesta de texto se ratifican en la intención de desconocer parte importante del convenio colectivo aún vigente, es decir lo relacionado a cambios en la estructura organizativa y contrataciones de personal.
Estos actos así como el Comunicado del 10 de Octubre, nos muestran una actitud de parte de la Alta Dirección que consideramos atentatoria a nuestros derechos laborales y que vulneran el respeto y la transparencia en el accionar que tanto pregonan y exigen al trabajador, pero que en la práctica el IPEN y sus representantes incumplen. Cabe entonces preguntarse Señor Presidente, por qué temen a estos puntos del convenio y por qué esta actitud autoritaria?
Creemos que todo este accionar responde a un plan pre concebido que se inició con los cambios al MOF y CAP del IPEN, en Junio de este año, a un mes del cambio de gobierno; luego, con los desplazamientos o reubicaciones de personal a otras áreas y no precisamente porque se valorara su trabajo; después con la actualización de legajos del personal y la premura en aprobar el nuevo ROF institucional, pretendiendo involucrarnos en un trabajo que la Administración llevó a cabo unilateralmente, sin contar con nuestra participación, ni respetar la Cláusula Cuarta del Convenio Colectivo vigente. Lejos de ello y en vísperas del cambio de régimen, abruptamente buscaron "nuestra opinión" o acaso pretendían informar a la PCM y al MEM que "su trabajo" contaba con el aval del Sindicato?

Todos estos hechos denunciables Señor Presidente, son graves y han generado un clima de inestabilidad entre los trabajadores que ven afectados sus derechos y aspiraciones profesionales, por lo que "lo exhortamos a suspender" la convocatoria actual a concurso y las sucesivas que se pretendan realizar, ya que se estaría entrampando la negociación colectiva en ciernes y además de ello desconociendo la normatividad vigente, el Plan de Carrera, y sobre todo los derechos de los trabajadores que por años se han visto relegados a niveles inferiores a los que realmente les corresponde por las labores que desempeñan, por ser discriminatorios y contrarios a los intereses, plan estratégico y sobre todo rafael la misión institucional.

LA JUNTA DIRECTIVA

Lima, 13 de Octubre del 2011

¡¡¡¡¡¡POR EL RESPETO AL TRABAJADOR Y POR LA UNIDAD SINDICAL!!!!!

PRESIDENTE DEL IPEN DESINFORMO A LA COMISION DE ENERGIA Y MINAS DEL CONGRESO

2011-11-08T06:18:00.000-08:00

de Peru Nuclear, el Lunes, 31 de octubre de 2011, 13:09

1.- Vemos con preocupación la gestión del ingeniero economista Carlos Federico Barreda Tamayo, director del Consejo Directivo del Organismo supervisor de la inversión en energía y minería-OSINERGMIN (desde el 2 de julio de 2008) y actual presidente del Instituto Peruano de Energía Nuclear – IPEN (desde el 11 de mayo de 2009); toda vez que en un periodo mayor a 2 años:

· A la fecha no hay ninguna disculpa pública de parte del Ing Carlos F. Barreda Tamayo, por el hecho de haber desinformado a los miembros de la Comisión de Energía y Minas del Congreso de la República del Perú, en la Sesión del 30 de marzo de 2011. Toda vez que, lo afirmado sobre la seguridad nuclear de las instalaciones nucleares peruanas no se ajustaba a la verdad.

El Perú tiene solo dos instalaciones nucleares y están emplazados en la provincia de Lima.

En el marco de las preocupaciones por la seguridad nuclear de las instalaciones nucleares peruanas, debido al accidente de la central nuclear de Fukushima del Japón producido el 11 de marzo de 2011;en la Sesión del 30 de marzo de 2011 de la Comisión de Energía y Minas del Congreso de la República del Perú, la Presidenta Cecilia Isabel Chacón De Vettori (Fujimorista), la Vicepresidenta Susana Gladis Vilca Achata (Nacionalista), el Secretario Tomas Alfredo Tomás Cenzano Sierralta (Partido Aprista Peruano) y otros congresistas, fueron desinformados por el presidente del IPEN, Carlos Federico Barreda Tamayo, al tratar del “desarrollo de la energía nuclear y la seguridad”.

Considerando los videos de:

1) la sesión del 30 de marzo de 2011 de la Comisión de Energía y Minas del Congreso de la República del Perú,

2) el programa UMBRALES del Canal 7 – TV PERU, del 29 de abril de 2011 y

3) Desinformación Nuclear en el Perú

se colige:

1.Desinformación respecto al reactor nuclear de potencia cero (RP-0), de 10 vatios, emplazado en la sede del Instituto Peruano de Energía Nuclear (IPEN) sito en la Av. Canada 1470, distrito de San Borja, que tiene una población mayor a 109 mil habitantes

1.1 El presidente Carlos F. Barreda Tamayo señaló que: “No hay forma que haya ni siquiera un incidente (en el reactor)”.

1.2 El Ing. Emilio Veramendi, experto nuclear del IPEN, indicó que: "En un accidente de reactividad de un prompt critico solamente se fundiría una plaquita de un elemento (combustible del reactor nuclear RP-0)".

2.Desinformación respecto al reactor nuclear de potencia 10 Megavatios (RP-10) del Centro Nuclear Oscar Miró Quesada de la Guerra RACSO, emplazado en Huarangal, distrito de Carabayllo, que tiene una población mayor a 148 mil habitantes.

2.1 El presidente Carlos F. Barreda Tamayo señaló en forma categórica que: “En el peor de los casos, no va ocurrir una fusión de los elementos combustibles”.

2.2 El Ing. Rolando Arrieta, jefe del Reactor RP-10 de Huarangal, indicó que todas las medidas de seguridad en el reactor RP-10 están basadas en la hipótesis del máximo accidente creíble de la “fusión de 8 placas de elemento combustible”.

Conclusión: La versión del presidente del IPEN es totalmente contradictoria a la de los expertos nucleares Ing. Emilio Veramendi e Ing. Rolando Arrieta; toda vez que en ambos casos si habría fusión de los elementos de combustible nuclear.

Por lo cual, el Ing. Carlos F. Barreda desinformo a la representación nacional.

Fuente: http://www.facebook.com/notes/peru-nuclear/presidente-del-ipen-desinformo-a-la-comision-de-energia-y-minas-del-congreso/141457025954893

H. Goutte. Curse "Introduction to Nuclear Physics". CERN.

2011-11-08T06:09:00.000-08:00

Summer Student Lecture Programme Course

Introduction to Nuclear Physics

by H. Goutte (CEA)

The nucleus a complex system

Parte (1/4) (descargar PPT)

I) Some features about the nucleus
discovery
radius
binding energy
nucleon-nucleon interaction
life time
applications

Parte (2/4) (descargar PPT)

II) Modeling of the nucleus

liquid drop
shell model
mean field

Parte (3/4) (descargar PPT)

III) Examples of recent studies
exotic nuclei
isomers
shape coexistence
super heavy

Parte (4/4) (descargar PPT)

IV) Toward a microscopic description of the fission process

CHILE: 33ª Reunión Anual del Programa de Reducción del Enriquecimiento del Combustible para Reactores Nucleares de Investigación

2011-10-28T05:26:00.000-07:00

ACTIVIDAD REÚNE CERCA DE 200 ESPECIALISTAS:

Con la presencia del Subsecretario de Energía, se dio inicio a la 33ª Reunión Anual del Programa de Reducción del Enriquecimiento del Combustible para Reactores Nucleares de Investigación

Hoy se dio inicio a la 33ª reunión anual "RERTR 2011”, del Programa de Reducción del Enriquecimiento de Combustible para Reactores de Investigación, la que se efectuó por primera vez en Chile.

En la oportunidad, el Subsecretario de Energía, Sergio del Campo, señaló que “esta es una invaluable oportunidad para intercambiar experiencias y fortalecer iniciativas de cooperación, en las que Chile siempre ha estado estrechamente vinculado. Los acuerdos bilaterales que están en su lugar con diferentes países, así como las iniciativas regionales de colaboración, son y serán el principal medio para mejorar los beneficios nucleares para la sociedad”.

Además indicó “el gobierno de Chile valora en gran medida las acciones de cooperación tomadas con el Departamento de Energía de los Estados Unidos, las que han sido un gran apoyo para la investigación y desarrollo en el campo de los avances en los combustibles”.

Este Programa, que data desde 1978, es parte de las iniciativas en torno a la “no-proliferación”, del Departamento de Energía del gobierno de los Estados Unidos, al que han adherido todos los países poseedores de reactores nucleares de investigación del mundo y a las que Chile se ha sumado desde sus inicios.

Durante años, la producción y uso de uranio de bajo enriquecimiento (UBE ó LEU, en inglés) ha permitido desarrollar las aplicaciones civiles de la energía nuclear. Al mismo tiempo, su uso permite una reducción en la disponibilidad de material susceptible de ser usado para fines bélicos. Nuestro país, a través de la Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear CCHEN, tiene una experiencia reconocida en procesos de producción de combustible en base a LEU, alcanzando altos niveles de desarrollo tecnológico. Ello hace más valorable la realización en Chile de este encuentro, como una oportunidad de transmisión e intercambio de experiencias entre los participantes.

Durante el evento se intercambiará información respecto a los programas nacionales e internacionales para el desarrollo de combustibles de uranio de bajo enriquecimiento y la fijación de objetivos para los reactores de investigación y de prueba. Junto con esto, se informará sobre las iniciativas para convertir reactores de investigación y procesos de producción de radioisótopos, para el uso del UBE y la implementación de los objetivos fijados.

Los temas de esta reunión técnica incluyen el desarrollo de nuevos combustibles UBE, el diseño y análisis de seguridad para la conversión de los reactores, transporte y almacenamiento de combustible gastado y la minimización de uranio altamente enriquecido.

La reunión RERTR 2011 es organizada por el Laboratorio Nacional Argonne (EE.UU.), la Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear (CCHEN) y el Laboratorio Nacional de Idaho, gracias a la iniciativa del U.S. Department of Energy / National Nuclear Security Administration’s Office of Global Threat Reduction, en cooperación con el Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica.

Fuente: Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear. Santiago,

http://www.cchen.cl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1173:actividad-reune-cerca-de-200-especialistas&catid=116:especiales&Itemid=2

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Tratan en Santiago programa de reducción de enriquecimiento de combustible nuclear

Con la presencia del subsecretario de Energía, Sergio del Campo, se dio inicio esta semana a la 33ª Reunión Anual del Programa de Reducción del Enriquecimiento del Combustible para Reactores Nucleares de Investigación, RERTR 2011, encuentro que por primera vez se realiza en Chile.

por

M. Conejeros

En la oportunidad, Del Campo señaló que “esta es una invaluable oportunidad para intercambiar experiencias y fortalecer iniciativas de cooperación, en las que Chile siempre ha estado estrechamente vinculado. Los acuerdos bilaterales que están en su lugar con diferentes países, así como las iniciativas regionales de colaboración, son y serán el principal medio para mejorar los beneficios nucleares para la sociedad”.

El subsecretario indicó además que “el gobierno de Chile valora en gran medida las acciones de cooperación tomadas con el Departamento de Energía de los Estados Unidos, las que han sido un gran apoyo para la investigación y desarrollo en el campo de los avances en los combustibles”.

Este Programa, que data del año 1978, es parte de las iniciativas en torno a la “no-proliferación” atómica del Departamento de Energía del Gobierno estadounidense, al que han adherido todos los países poseedores de reactores nucleares de investigación del mundo y al que Chile se ha sumado desde sus inicios.

Durante años, la producción y uso de uranio de bajo enriquecimiento (UBE, o LEU, según sus siglas en inglés) ha permitido desarrollar las aplicaciones civiles de la energía nuclear y, al mismo tiempo, su uso permite una reducción en la disponibilidad de material susceptible de ser usado para fines bélicos.

Chile, a través de la Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear CCHEN, tiene una experiencia reconocida en procesos de producción de combustible en base a LEU, alcanzando altos niveles de desarrollo tecnológico.

Durante el evento se intercambiará información respecto a los programas nacionales e internacionales para el desarrollo de combustibles de uranio de bajo enriquecimiento y la fijación de objetivos para los reactores de investigación y de prueba, informándose además respecto de iniciativas para convertir reactores de investigación y procesos de producción de radioisótopos para el uso del UBE y la implementación de objetivos fijados anteriormente.

Los temas de la reunión técnica incluyen el desarrollo de nuevos combustibles UBE, el diseño y análisis de seguridad para la conversión de reactores, transporte y almacenamiento de combustible gastado y la minimización de uranio altamente enriquecido.

La reunión RERTR 2011 es organizada por el Laboratorio Nacional Argonne (EE.UU.), la Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear (CCHEN) y el Laboratorio Nacional de Idaho, gracias a la iniciativa del U.S. Department of Energy / National Nuclear Security Administration’s Office of Global Threat Reduction, en cooperación con el Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica.

miércoles, 26 de octubre de 2011

Fuente: http://www.portalenergia.cl/Article.aspx?Id=14495

Presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner puso en marcha Atucha II, y confirmó nuevos proyectos

2011-09-30T06:53:00.000-07:00

Cristina Fernández de Kirchner puso en marcha la central de energía nuclear Atucha II y ratificó la meta extender la vida de la Central Nuclear Embalse, la construcción de Atucha III y de la central Carem 25.

Cristina Fernández de Kirchner encabezó el acto por el inicio del proceso de puesta en marcha de la Central Nuclear Atucha II, en el cual destacó: “me siento parte de esa generación que está pagando la deuda histórica, económica, social, financiera (…) hemos recuperado la voluntad de decisión de que el país debe gobernarse a sí mismo”

En el acto estuvieron presentes los ministros de Planificación, Julio De Vido, y de Defensa, Arturo Puricelli; los gobernadores Daniel Scioli y Gildo Insfrán; el director del Proyecto Atucha II, José Luis Antúnez; y las autoridades la CNEA, Norma Boero y Mauricio Bisauta.

Cristina Fernández de Kirchner pulsó los dos botones que pusieron en funcionamiento la turbina y el ingreso de agua para el enfriamiento de Atucha II, que aportará 745 megavatios y que demandó una inversión de $10.200 millones.

Asimismo, afirmó que cuando se puso en marcha Atucha I, en el año 1974, la Argentina se convirtió en “el primer país latinoamericano en operar una central nuclear”, pero tras el inicio de Atucha II, la obra fue paralizada en el 1974, por cuanto “las injerencias externas y las equivocaciones políticas” internas apuntaban a que “la Argentina no tuviera desarrollo nuclear”.

Finalmente, la presidenta adelantó que “tenemos que ir por más”, por lo cual detalló que “las próximas metas" tienen que ser la puesta en marcha de la extención de vida de la Central Nuclear Embalse, la construcción de Atucha III, y la construcción del reactor nuclear CAREM.

Al referirse al Carem la primera mandataria destacó que será la primera central nuclear íntegramente diseñada en argentina, explicó las particularidades del proyecto que "ha comenzado” e hizo hincapié en "el uso pacífico de la energía nuclear y de la no proliferación” que caracteriza a la Argentina.

Atucha II sumará 700 megavatios al Sistema Interconectado

El ministro de Planificación destacó que Atucha II generará 700 megavatios, que se integrarán al Sistema Interconectado Nacional. La reactivación de la obra, que estuvo 14 años parada, demandó una inversión de 10.200 millones de pesos.

El ministro de Planificación, Julio De Vido, destacó que Atucha II, que generará 700 megavatios, es la turbina más grande generadora que tiene la Argentina y la más importante de Sudamérica y se pudo terminar después de 34 años de obra, que podría haber durado cinco o seis años, pero que se abandonó en la década del ’90 y destacó la tarea de los trabajadores que cuidaron los materiales.

La obra terminó de montarse “después de haber estado catorce años paralizada”, dijo y explicó que desde el año 1990 se comenzó a parar y en 1994 “se paralizó definitivamente”.

Por ello, agregó en declaraciones a radio Continental, “destacamos muchísimo la tarea de los trabajadores; el Estado prácticamente se borró o no existió” y los trabajadores cuidaron “todos los materiales, lo que le permitió ayer a la presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner poner a girar la turbina que va a generar 700 megavatios”, que se van a integrar al Sistema Interconectado Nacional.

Terminar Atucha II, explicó De Vido, implicó “rearmar el rompecabezas” con el que se encontraron en el año 2003 cuando asumió Néstor Kirchner la presidencia de la Nación y lanzó el Plan Nuclear.

“Lo que se terminó ayer es el armado de todas las piezas y se puso a rotar la turbina. Y el ingreso de agua de rio para la refrigeración del núcleo atómico” que, explicó es el que genera vapor; el vapor hacer rotar la turbina y la turbina mueve el generador que produce la energía.

La obra, agregó, “está montada en un cien por cien. Hay 566 sistemas que hay que verificar y en seis meses los 700 megavatios van al sistema nacional interconectado”.

Destacó que cinco mil personas trabajan en Atucha II, que fueron formados y que además van a trabajar en el CAREM, que es el reactor de potencia “de tecnología cien por ciento nacional. Este personal –precisó de Vido- que se entrenó en estos últimos cuatro años, ya empezó la obra de CAREN, que en tres años va a estar generando 25 megavatios. Es un reactor de potencia atómica igual al que mueve Atucha II y que va a generar la cuarta central atómica que estás en trámite de licitación, en el que va a haber un gigantesco componente argentino gracias a los desarrollos en Atucha II, que nos permite empezar desde abajo trabajar en un reactor nuclear de potencia propia”.

Ayer quedó terminado y completado la totalidad de los 566 sistemas que conforman la central, los sistemas operativos motrices, el sistema nuclear, todo los sistemas de alarma, etc. Fue un día muy importante sobre todo después de haber estado catorce años paralizada la obra”.

29 de Septiembre de 2011

FUSION NUCLEAR: ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

2011-08-30T10:06:00.000-07:00

El ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, en español Reactor Termonuclear Experimental Internacional) es un proyecto de gran complejidad ideado, en 1986, para demostrar la factibilidad científica y tecnológica de la fusión nuclear. El ITER se está construyendo en Cadarache (Francia) y costará 10.300 millones de euros, convirtiéndolo en el tercer proyecto más caro de la historia, después de la Estación Espacial Internacional y del Proyecto Manhattan. Iter, además, significa el camino en latín, y este doble sentido refleja el rol de ITER en el perfeccionamiento de la fusión nuclear como una fuente de energía para usos pacíficos.

Contenido

Objetivos de ITER

Su objetivo es probar todos los elementos necesarios para la construcción y funcionamiento de un reactor de fusión nuclear que serviría de demostración comercial, además de reunir los recursos tecnológicos y científicos de los programas de investigación desarrollados en ese entonces por la Unión Soviética, los Estados Unidos,Europa (a través de EURATOM) y Japón. El ITER cuenta con el auspicio de la IAEA, así como una forma de compartir los gastos del proyecto.

Diseño

Sección del interior de la máquina.

El reactor experimental de fusión nuclear está basado en el diseño ruso, llamado tokamak. Éste es la base de la construcción del modelo de demostración comercial.

El ITER está diseñado para calentar un plasma de Hidrógeno gaseoso hasta 100 millones de grados centígrados. El ITER debería generar su primer plasma hacia el año 2016 y estar plenamente operativo en el 2022.

ITER se basa en el concepto de "tokamak" de confinamiento magnético, en la que se contiene el plasma en una cámara de vacío con forma toroidal. El combustible - una mezcla de deuterio y tritio, dos isótopos del hidrógeno- se calienta a temperaturas superiores a los 150 millones °C, formando un plasma caliente. Los fuertescampos magnéticos se utilizan para mantener el plasma lejos de las paredes, los cuales son producidos por bobinas superconductoras que rodea al contenedor, y por una corriente eléctrica impulsada a través del plasma

El problema reside en la enorme dificultad de comprimir el hidrógeno de un modo uniforme. En las estrellas la gravedad comprime el hidrógeno en una esfera perfecta de modo que el gas se caliente uniforme y limpiamente.En las condiciones del diseño del reactor esta uniformidad es muy difícil de alcanzar.

Socios

Los actuales socios del consorcio son: Unión Europea (UE), Rusia (en reemplazo de la Unión Soviética),Estados Unidos (entre 1999-2003), Corea del sur, China (desde febrero de 2003), India y Japón.¹ Entre1992-2004 participó Canadá^{[cita requerida]}.

Historia

El 21 de mayo de 2006 se anuncia que físicos estadounidenses han superado uno de los problemas de la fusión nuclear usando el modelo Tokamak, el fenómeno llamado modos localizados en el borde, o ELMs (por sus siglas en inglés) que provocaría una erosión del interior del reactor, obligando a su reemplazo frecuentemente.
En un artículo publicado el domingo 21 de mayo de 2000 en la revista británica Nature Physics, un equipo dirigido por Todd Evans de la empresa General Atomics, California, anuncia que descubrieron que un pequeño campo magnético resonante, proveniente de las bobinas especiales ubicadas en el interior de la vasija del reactor, crea una interferencia magnética “caótica” en el borde del plasma que detiene la formación de flujos.

El 24 de mayo de 2006 los siete socios del proyecto ITER --Unión Europea, Japón, Estados Unidos, Corea del Sur, la India, Rusia y China-- firmaron en Bruselas el acuerdo internacional para el lanzamiento del reactor de fusión internacional con el modelo Tokamak, que se construirá en Cadarache, en el Sudeste de Francia usando el diseño Tokamak. Los costes de construcción del reactor se estimaron en 4.570 millones de euros y la duración de la construcción en 10 años. La UE y Francia se comprometieron a contribuir con el 50% del coste, mientras que las otras seis partes acordaron aportar cada una alrededor del 10%.

Selección de la sede

Durante el proceso para definir emplazamiento del centro de investigación y del futuro reactor de fusión se presentaron varios inconvenientes. Durante el mes de Noviembre existe una pugna entre Francia y España por la obtención de la candidatura de la UE para situar el ITER. La opción española tras descartar algunas fue Vandellós. En diciembre de 2003 los seis miembros no pudieron decidirse entre situarlo en Francia o en Japón. Al parecer, por motivos políticos los Estados Unidos estuvieron en contra de la candidatura de Francia (se presume que se debió a su negativa a apoyar la invasión de Irak de 2003), lo cual dificultó la decisión definitiva. El 26 de diciembre de 2003, se elige finalmente la candidatura de Cadarache como la opción de la UE.

Mapa de Cadarache, Francia, lugar escogido como sede de ITER.

Se llegó a plantear la posibilidad de que la UE siguiese adelante con el proyecto sin Japón y Estados Unidos. Esto fue sugerido por la Comisión Europea y por Francia, que contaban con que la aportación de estos dos países podría sustituirse con la entrada de nuevos socios y con aumentos de los países de la UE. Se había anunciado que India, Suizay Brasil estarían dispuestos a participar en el proyecto europeo.

Los sitios candidatos fueron:

Cadarache (Cerca de Marsella), (contaba con el apoyo de la UE, Rusia y China)
Rokkasho, Japón (contaba con el apoyo de Estado Unidos, Japón y Corea del Sur)

El 28 de junio de 2005 en Moscú, se llegó finalmente a un acuerdo sobre la localización del reactor, que será ubicado enCadarache.

La UE asumirá el 40% de los costos de construcción, Francia costeará un 10% adicional mientras que los cinco socios restantes sufragarán 10% cada uno.

El Primer ministro de Francia en ese momento, Dominique de Villepin, consideró que el ITER conllevaría la creación de 4.000 puestos de trabajo en su país.

Véase también

Referencias

↑ www.iter.org

Fuente: WIKIPEDIA

2011-08-30T09:52:00.000-07:00

NASA Langley Chief Scientist Dennis M. Bushnell has been with the agency for four decades, working on programs from Gemini to the Shuttle.

The Future of Energy: Part 1

NASA Langley Chief Scientist Dennis M. Bushnell on the future of energy

Open Access Article Originally Published: April 23, 2011

"Streams of water will flow through the desert; the burning sand will become a lake, and dry land will be filled with springs. Where jackals used to live, marsh grass and reeds will grow."

That passage from the Book of Isaiah (35:7) in the Torah, or what Christians refer to as the Old Testament, may be envisioning what NASA's chief scientist at its Langley research center thinks could be the future of what today are vast and growing stretches of desert in places like North Africa, India, the Australian Outback, the American Southwest. As late as the Byzantine Empire, vast stretches or North Africa were cultivated via still standing, Roman-built aqueduct systems. Today those regions stand largely abandoned, consumed by desert.

But unlike Isaiah's fresh water marsh grass and reeds, these plants will be halophytes: salt tolerant species that nature has evolved or modern man has engineered. At some point in the distant future, such vast stretches of salt water irrigated fields that were once desert will feed the world and fuel it, gradually sequestering excess CO2 in plant roots, while infinitely recycling the remaining carbon, eventually allowing humanity to stop burning fossil fuels.

That's only one of the possibilities Dennis M. Bushnell, NASA Langley's chief scientist, sees as ways to bring runaway climate change under control while entirely eliminating the need for oil and coal. In this two-part interview lasting more than 45-minutes, he discusses with EV World's Bill Moore a list of potential energy game changers, the most profound being Low Energy Nuclear Reaction or LENR, which we highlight in Nuclear Power We May Be Able to Live With.

US/Indian company has developed the Skymill high altitude teethered wind turbine, one of many types of designs seeking development funding.

Future of Energy - Part 2

NASA Langley Chief Scientist Dennis M. Bushnell on the future of energy

Open Access Article Originally Published: April 28, 2011

In Part 1 of our discussion with NASA Langley Chief Scientist Dennis M. Bushnell, he put LENR (low energy nuclear reaction) at the top of his list of promising new energy sources, followed by bio-energy derived from halophytes, salt-tolerant plants that can be harvested for both fuel and food using what is now waste land and deserts.

In part 2, his next choice is "drill geothermal." He distinguishes it from conventional geothermal, like the well fields around Calistoga, California at the head of the Napa Valley, which utilize hot water relatively close to the earth's surface. Drill geothermal would, if exploited, tap into a far wider resource of 200-300C rock 2-5 km below the earth's surface, rock which can now be relatively easily reached with modern oil drilling technology that is today able to go down a 10km (6 miles). Today deep wells are already taping into these hot, but often caustic and corrosive liquids, but they presently aren't being utilized to generate power. More information on this energy source is available in an MIT published report entitled The Future of Geothermal Energy published in 2006.

Next on Bushnell's list is nano-plastic photovoltaic that generates electricity from sunlight and costs a fraction of what current silicon-based PV costs. While not as efficient and silicon, it is improving. Additionally, he notes, that the use of various types of solar concentrators can reduce the amount of solar PV needed to generate power; these can be optical concentrators or mechanical: polished mirrors or metal. Other promising solar approaches are solar thermal and solar hybrids systems, the latter which circulates a working fluid in conjunction with PV to reduce heat build up and utilize it for other applications.

He thinks high altitude wind generators promising, though tethering them will be problematic. Surprisingly, however for someone that works for NASA, Bushnell thinks the idea of space-based solar power is completely impractical for many reasons.

While all these technologies sound promising, we asked him what is the biggest obstacle to their adoption. His reply will surprise you. It has to do with the make-up of the human brain and its innate conservative defense mechanism. In Part 2 he offers a very sobering assessment of the state of America and the planet as a whole, noting that the planet passed peak oil several years ago. To listen to the entire 27-minute interview. use either of the two MP3 players in the right-hand column or feel free to download it to your computer for transfer to and playback on your favorite MP3 device.

US Deep (6km) Geothermal Resources

END STORY

Source: http://evworld.com/article.cfm?storyid=1985

Newest Cold Fusion Machine Does the Impossible ... Or Does it?

2011-08-30T09:24:00.000-07:00

Natalie Wolchover

On the surface, the whole thing sounds fishy, and it is fishy: Rossi and Focardi do not claim to know how the fusion reaction they are harnessing actually works, and they even shy away from giving details about their machine's design, explaining that it isn't patent-protected. Furthermore, experts at the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) have conducted two thorough reviews of cold fusion research in the past — one in 1989 and the other in 2004 — and in both instances, they were not convinced by either the theory or the experimental results.

On the other hand, inexplicable as it may be, the E-Cat does seem to work. Just last week, Rossi and Focardi demonstrated its operation for two credible individuals: Hanno Essen, a theoretical physicist at the Swedish Royal Institute of Technology and chairman of the Swedish Skeptics Society, and Sven Kullander of Uppsala University, chairman of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Energy Committee.

Essen and Kullander gave the E-Cat a solid thumbs-up. It produced too much excess heat to have been originating from a chemical process, they wrote in their report, adding that, "The only alternative explanation is that there is some kind of a nuclear process that gives rise to the measured energy production."

The Italian inventors plan to commercialize their machine, and the Greek government is even considering giving them the funds to do so.
Could the DOE, the vast majority of physicists and engineers, and even physics itself, be wrong about cold fusion? If they are, then all of our energy problems might be solved.

A new physical effect

"Basically, there's a new physical effect that I think was found in the lab more than 20 years ago by Fleischmann and Pons [University of Utah electrochemists who were later derided for their work on cold fusion]," said Peter Hagelstein, an MIT professor of electrical engineering and computer science and one of the most mainstream proponents of cold fusion research. "It was not accepted by the scientific community. It's been laughed at and criticized. However, over the years the effect has continued to be seen."

"In a nutshell, it seems that [in cold fusion] there's a new kind of process involved in nuclei reactions," Hagelstein told Life's Little Mysteries, a sister site of LiveScience. "The essential difference is that in conventional nuclear physics, when nuclear energy is released, it comes out as nuclear radiation. In this process, when you make energy you don't get radiation at all, implying there's a new physical mechanism at work."

The other difference is that current nuclear reactors generate electricity by encouragingfission reactions — atoms breaking apart — whereas cold fusion is a process in which atoms somehow spontaneously fuse together.

Atoms don't just fuse, mainstream physicists argue. "Between two atoms there's a very great electric repulsion, called a Coulomb barrier," said Kent Hansen, an MIT professor emeritus of nuclear engineering. "Overcoming that barrier requires a huge amount of energy, so in order for it to happen, you need temperatures like those in the sun, where particles are moving very fast and can overcome the Coulomb barrier to fuse."

Quantum mechanics, the probability laws of the universe, allow for the miniscule yet real possibility that two particles could hop over the Coulomb barrier and fuse even at room temperature, but according to Hansen, that’s inconceivably unlikely.

"It is a scientific fact that you can throw a newspaper at the door, and it may go through. But the likelihood of that happening is so low that you can do it every second since the beginning of time and it won't actually happen," Hansen told Life's Little Mysteries.

The same goes for cold fusion. Some theoretical physicists have estimated that the chance of it happening is 1 in 1-with-40-zeros-after-it. That's small, but not zero. "Physics admits that there is a very low possibility of two particles at room temperature fusing together," Hansen said. "And that's what makes it difficult to say cold fusion can't happen."

Possible but implausible

Despite the infinitesimally small possibility, most scientists say cold fusion is implausible, and thus the research community gets little or no funding. Papers are categorically rejected by most peer-reviewed journals, and, similarly, the U.S. Patent Office rejects all patents having to do with it, equating the concept with that of perpetual motion.

That lack of patent protection stifles progress in the field, as researchers do not fully disclose their experimental designs to one another, Hagelstein said. Without seeing the guts of Rossi's and Focardi's machine, he has no idea if it actually works. "They've been keeping the technical details under wraps because they aren't patent protected, so it's hard to tell what they're doing from the photos and written descriptions. There is essentially no information that's useful to ascertain whether they've done it."

But he's optimistic that they might have. "There are a lot of other researchers who've been exploring technologies that are related and they've reported similar results," Hagelstein said. "[Rossi and Focardi] reported an immediate power gain of a factor of 10 and a long-term one of 20. There are other researchers who have reported the same power gain, so it's not out of line with the cutting-edge state of the art in the field."

In most cases, the alleged fusion reaction with its outburst of heat seems to occur when hydrogen, or its isotopes deuterium and tritium, are injected into a metal such as palladium. Proponents postulate that the presence of the metal somehow raises the likelihood that fusion will occur by 40 orders of magnitude, though no one knows why this should be the case.

David Goodstein, a Caltech physicist who is himself skeptical about cold fusion but doesn't categorically dismiss it, says the main problem is that experimental results in the field are rarely repeatable. No one has been able to demonstrate that cold fusion works consistently. In some cases, an energized injection of hydrogen, deuterium or tritium into a metal leads to an outpouring of heat, but in other cases it doesn't.

Cold fusion proponents, however, say they do consistently observe the fusion reaction when the ratio of hydrogen to metal atoms is greater than or equal to one. In other words, when the hydrogen atoms are really dense, and there's more than one of them for every palladium atom (or nickel or some other metal, as the case may be), cold fusion always sets in. Or so the cold fusion researchers say; since there's no peer-review process in the field, no one is sure what to believe.

The book on cold fusion might not close until it is allowed to fully open. "What you need is either total reproducibility or total irreproducibility," Goodstein said. Maybe Rossi's and Focardi's E-Cat machine works consistently. Maybe not. "If some arrangement could be made we would love to do a test of the E-Cat at MIT to verify that it works," Hagelstein said.

15 april 2011

http://www.livescience.com/13745-newest-cold-fusion-machine-impossible.html

COLD NUCLEAR FUSION

2011-08-30T09:18:00.000-07:00

Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati
LNF–11/03 (P)
April 6, 2011

COLD NUCLEAR FUSION
E.N. Tsyganov
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Texas, USA

Abstract
Recent accelerator experiments on fusion of various elements have clearly demonstrated
that the effective cross-sections of these reactions depend on what material the target particle
is placed in. In these experiments, there was a significant increase in the probability of
interaction when target nuclei are imbedded in a conducting crystal or are a part of it. These
experiments open a new perspective on the problem of so-called cold nuclear fusion.

Source: http://www.journal-of-nuclear-physics.com/files/Cold%20nuclear%20fusion.pdf

A STUDENT'S GUIDE to Cold Fusion, Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR), Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR).

2011-08-30T08:56:00.000-07:00

A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO COLD FUSION,
by Edmund Storms, February 2003

FOREWORD

My interest in cold fusion began shortly after Profs. Pons and Fleischmann announced their claims in 1989, while I was but an ordinary conventional research scientist working at LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory). Of the numerous attempts to duplicate the claims, I was fortunate in producing tritium as well as anomalous energy. There is nothing like seeing a phenomenon for yourself to make a person believe that it is real, regardless of what less observant people might claim. Also, seeing many fellow scientists acting foolish and self-serving provided an additional but disappointing education. Since retiring from LANL twelve years ago, I have continued to investigate the subject, to write papers, including several scientific reviews, and to lobby for acceptance of the phenomenon. The large collection of references, being nearly 3000, acquired in this effort was made the LIBRARY on www.LENR-CANR.org. With essential help provided by Dieter Britz and Jed Rothwell, this collection of literature will be kept up to date as the field grows.

Literature on the subject of cold fusion has grown beyond a point where casual reading can lead to useful understanding. Although several good books are available, they do not address the scientific issues and the various scientific reviews are too narrowly focused.

This paper is designed to give a technically trained person an overall understanding of the claims and evidence for the effect in as condensed a manner as possible. Someone wishing a nontechnical understanding should read “Excess Heat: Why Cold Fusion Research Prevailed” by Charles Beaudette [1] or the nontechnical section of www.LENR-CANR.org.

This paper is neither a complete review nor a critique of known information, but rather a guide. I have chosen only a sample of useful papers, with frequent reference to reviews where a more complete list can be found. Links to the complete LIBRARY on LENR-CANR.org allow full text papers to be immediately consulted. A complete list of references is attached so that this paper can be printed and viewed as an independent document. The cited references must be consulted for a complete understanding once the map provided here has been studied.

If the reader finds an important reference missing from either the LIBRARY or from this paper, please contact me at Storms2@ix.netcom.com so that the oversight can be corrected. In addition, a section will be made available on the website to which critiques of this paper or additions can be submitted. It is my intention to encourage debate and to advance the field at all levels of belief and understanding.

When making suggestions, please bear in mind that many papers do not provide sufficient information to allow an evaluation of accuracy or a conclusion about what the observation means. This is especially true of many studies that failed to produce anomalous effects. Although skeptics often point to failures as a way to reject the process, actually a failure in one laboratory seldom casts doubt on work in another, unless the two use exactly the same instruments and techniques. Failure has many fathers besides the claim being false. Hopefully, this discussion will help future authors address these important issues, whether their work fails or succeeds. Without such information, I am frequently forced to state what was observed without the satisfaction of providing the reader with further insight.

New work has revealed several incorrect assumptions that have led research into unproductive directions. I suggest theories and future studies now take into account the following:

1. The effect occurs in the surface of an electrolyzing cathode, not in bulk material.

2. Active material causing the Pons-Fleischmann effect is not β-PdD of any composition, but is a complex compound of unknown but high composition and of unknown structure.

3. Nuclear reactions are found to occur in many materials treated in a variety of ways, and not just when palladium and deuterium are present.

4. An environment consisting of nanosized particles is very frequently observed when nuclear effects occur.

5. All isotopes of hydrogen can be involved in the cold fusion process.

In addition, I suggest that all past explanations based on the ideal properties of β-PdD must be abandoned as being hopelessly inadequate. Until the nature of the real world, in contrast to the ideal imagined world, is addressed by theory, the field will continue to stagnate. These conclusions, some my own and some shared by others, provide the basis for this paper.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The controversial phenomenon called "Cold Fusion" (CF), "Low Energy Nuclear Reactions"(LENR) or Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions" (CANR) involves the proposed ability to initiate a wide variety of nuclear reactions in solid materials using much lower energies than thought possible. Rather than using brute force to move nuclei to within reaction distance, apparently a mechanism exists in a lattice structure that is capable of circumventing any Coulomb barrier, allowing certain nuclei to interact. This paper will address the major observations that are used to support the claimed anomalous behavior. To help the reader obtain a quick overview of the claims, minimal detail is provided in the text. All of the many omitted papers are available in the website LIBRARY where dedicated readers can browse to their heart's content.

Chapter 1 gives an overview of the methods used to initiate the effect. Evidence for anomalous heat is summarized in Chapter 2 and nuclear products are discussed in Chapter 3. A few explanations for the nuclear mechanism are provided in Chapter 7. These anomalous nuclear reactions require a special environment in which to operate, the so-called Nuclear Active Environment (NAE). This environment is described in Chapter 4. Because duplication of the claims has been difficult for many people, some insights are provided in Chapter 6 to help in this effort. For a study to be useful, a student needs to understand the chemical properties of materials used in the attempt. These are described in Chapter 5 for only the Pd-D system where a few misconceptions are discussed. Finally, some plausible prosaic explanations and possible errors are offered in Chapter 8.

This discussion is designed to be a guide for amateurs and professionals alike. The claimed effects are accepted as being real, although not well understood or necessarily accurate in their reported magnitude. This paper intends to show important patterns of behavior, to suggest ideas that might have been overlooked, and to give a student some understanding of how to duplicate the claims. The reader can make the final judgement as to whether such a large and consistent collection of observations can be produced by error, chance, or prosaic processes.

CHAPTER 1: Overview

Palladium deuteride was once thought to be unique in its ability to host such reactions. Many other metals and metal alloys now have been found to produce the same novel effects. However, all of these anomalous effects are sensitive to the chemical environment in which they occur. Apparently, chemistry is as important as physics to this phenomenon, a fact that is frequently ignored.

The NAE has been generated many different ways and exposed to a range of applied energy from several sources. The first reported method [2] used electrolysis to load palladium with deuterium. Electrolysis has also produced success using nickel cathodes with a H₂O containing electrolyte [3, 4], platinum with D₂O [5], and titanium with D₂O [6]. Increased temperature [7-9], applied RF energy [10], and laser light [11-13] appear to enhance the effects. Use of voltage sufficient to create plasma [14, 15] in the electrolyte has been found to generate a variety of anomalous nuclear reactions when palladium, tungsten or carbon [16] is used as the cathode. The kind of atom dissolved in the electrolyte and subsequently plated on the cathode plays a dominant role in determining which nuclear reaction occurs on the cathode. Thin layers of material plated on glass [17], platinum[18], and copper [19, 20] have also become nuclear active when electrolyzed. Simply exposing finely divided metal of various kinds to hydrogen isotopes can generate anomalous effects. When exposed to deuterium gas, nanometer-size palladium particles become nuclear active. This palladium powder can be freestanding as “palladium-black” [21] or attached to a carbon surface [22], as in a conventional hydrogen catalyst. A flux of deuterium caused to pass through a 40 nm layer of palladium can also generate a variety of nuclear reactions [23], depending on the kind of atoms dissolved in the palladium.

Energetic ions, obtained by discharge in gas containing hydrogen isotopes [24, 25] or by ion bombardment [26-35], have been used to initiate nuclear reactions. In all cases, ion energy is far below that thought necessary to cause a significant nuclear effect.

Certain complex metal oxides [36, 37] are capable of dissolving some deuterium, which can be electrodiffused within the structure by applying a voltage. Anomalous energy has been generated using this method. Electrodiffusion of D⁺ in β-PdD may also produce anomalous heat [38-42].

Bubbles generated by sonic energy passing through a liquid can collapse on a metal surface. When this happens, the bubble content is injected into the metal as plasma. Use of heavy water injects a mixture of D⁺ and O^--, which produces anomalous nuclear products and heat in a variety of metals used as the target [43-45]. Normal water may produce similar novel effects, although duplication has yet to be successful [46].

Anomalous effects have been seen during a variety of chemical reactions when deuterium is present [47, 48]. Sudden heating of titanium charged with D₂ [49] or cooling of titanium in D₂ gas [50, 51] results in neutron emissions. Many chemical reactions involving deuterium have been reported to generate neutrons, including the setting of Portland cement. Nuclear effects have also been reported to involve biological systems in the presence of both D₂O [52] and H₂O [53, 54]. Although the number of nuclear events is small in these environments, conventional theory would have none produced.

Only a few studies have measured nuclear products at the same time as anomalous energy. These measurements show a direct relationship between energy and ⁴He production when deuterium is present, as described in Chapter 3 and a relationship between transmutation products and heat. On the other hand, tritium or neutron emissions are seldom associated with detected heat, although occasionally X-ray emissions are observed. Apparently, the path taken by the fusion reaction is much different in a lattice compared to when energetic plasma is used.

Hydrogen is also found to be nuclear active in some environments. Anomalous effects are produced by specially treated nickel surface when exposed to hydrogen gas [55], Nickel, when it is repeatedly loaded and deloaded using hydrogen gas, appears to produce tritium [56]. Hydrogen can also produce transmutation products and detectable energy [57-65]. Even tritium, when reacted with finely divided titanium [66], experiences a change in its decay rate.

This is only a brief sample of conditions reported to produce strange effects, many of which have been done with enough care and duplication to support the claims. Only a few of the many duplications are noted here.

Unfortunately, the nature of the NAE has been difficult to discover because the reactions only occur in very small regions that have properties much different from the surrounding bulk material. More detail will be provided in later chapters.

New methods are being explored and old methods are being replicated. Skeptics predicted that cold fusion was an artifact that would disappear when better instruments and techniques were used, but this has not happened. On the contrary the effects have been more widely reported at higher signal-to-noise ratios. Clearly, the unique mechanism can be initiated many different ways, in many chemical structures, and involve all isotopes of hydrogen. The challenge is to determine what these structures and mechanisms have in common, not to reject them because they are novel.

CHAPTER 2: Energy Production

I. Explanation of the Calorimetric Method

Demonstration of energy production requires use of a calorimeter. Several kinds have been used, which include isoperibolic, flow-type, and Seebeck. Because calorimetry is a mature science, its errors and limitations are well known. However, not all measurements of the LENR effect have taken advantage of this knowledge. Anyone attempting such measurements or evaluating the claims must first learn what is known about the method being used, as described below.

Isoperibolic calorimetry uses the temperature difference across a thermal barrier to determine the amount of thermal power being generated within the barrier. Accuracy depends on ΔT being known over the whole barrier area and remaining stable. Errors can be introduced when the wall of an electrolytic cell is used as the thermal barrier and temperature is measured within the electrolyte. Unexpected temperature gradients are usually present, which compromise the measurement. Under these conditions, accuracy depends on design of the cell, location of the temperature sensors, and stirring rate. [67] This method requires suitable calibration, usually by electrolyzing an inert electrode. Use of an internal heating element for calibration is not recommended, especially in the absence of stirring or simultaneous application of electrolytic current. A refinement of this method uses a thermal barrier external to the cell [68, 69]. Such a design is much less affected by gradients within the cell and can be made very sensitive to generated thermal power.

Flow-type calorimeter captures released thermal power in a flowing fluid and measure the resulting temperature change of this fluid. If no energy is lost from the calorimeter, the amount of thermal power can be obtained using flow rate, temperature change, and heat capacity of the fluid, the so-called absolute method. However, complete capture of all energy is very difficult. Consequently, the calorimeter must be calibrated by using an internal heating element or by electrolyzing an inert electrode. The advantage of this method rests on it being relatively insensitive to where energy is generated within the cell. However, isolating the calorimeter from the environment and achieving a constant, known flow rate can be a challenge.

A Seebeck calorimeter generates a thermoelectric voltage produced by the temperature difference across a thermal barrier containing thermocouples. This barrier completely surrounds the heat source, with the outside kept at constant temperature. Because all parts of the surrounding wall contain the same density of thermocouples connected in series, loss of energy through each part of the thermal barrier is summed, regardless of where heat energy leaves. Unfortunately, not all locations are completely equivalent. As a result, the calibration constant is sensitive to where the heat source is located within the thermal envelope. This problem can be reduced by instillation of a fan. On the other hand, this method is insensitive to where heat is generated within a cell containing the heat source. Only the position of the cell must be kept constant within the thermal envelope. This method also must be calibrated.

Many variations on these methods have been used, some with good success. Reliable measurement of anomalous power of ±50 mW, superimposed on 15 watts of electrolytic power, can be routinely achieved. Some special designs are reliable below 1 mW when less electrolytic power is applied.

II. Anomalous Energy

II.1. Electrolytic Method

The first claim for anomalous heat generation was provided by Pons and Fleischmann [2], using electrolysis and an isoperibolic calorimeter. This work was subjected to considerable analysis and debate, but was eventually found to be sufficiently accurate to support their claim [70]. Since this work was published, well over100 claims for anomalous energy using electrolysis have been published, many finding more than one sample to be active. Unfortunately, only about 37 of these publications provide enough information to allow an analysis of possible errors. Most of these studies measured several samples of palladium, with some being active and some inactive. These reports are tabulated by Storms [71], who also evaluated the suggested prosaic explanations.

Until recently, anomalous energy was assumed generated within the β-PdD structure. Many recent observations indicate that only small regions in the surface are active and these turn rapidly off and on [72]. Presumably, a region starts to generate energy, heats up, expels deuterium, and turns off. Rapid repletion of the process produces apparent steady energy. Occasionally energy density is sufficient to cause local melting. This region consists of a complex alloy containing many elements, but little palladium. More will be said about this situation below.

When the electrolytic method is used with a palladium cathode, everyone who makes suitable measurements always sees six characteristic behaviors. These are:

1. The average D/Pd ratio of the entire cathode must exceed a critical value. This value differs somewhat between studies because only the average composition can be determined, which depends on the method used and the shape of the cathode. Typically, the average critical value lies between D/Pd=0.85 and 0.90. Infrequently, compositions above this range are found to be inactive for unknown reasons. The actual composition of the active surface appears to be above D/Pd=1.5 and perhaps as high as D/Pd=2.0 [73, 74], as shown in Fig 1. Failure to reach a sufficiently high composition on the surface, regardless of the average composition, can explain occasional failure of highly loaded samples.

FIGURE 1. Measurements of thin film composition as being representive of the true surface composition.

2. Current must be maintained for a critical time. This time is variable and presumably depends on how rapidly the surface can acquire the active structure and/or composition. This time is short for very thin layers of Pd, while it can be as long as months for bulk palladium. Failure to wait the necessary time is one reason some people have not seen the effect.

3. Current density must be above a critical value, as shown by a few examples in Figure 2. Applied current determines the surface composition, hence the nature of the active structure. A value above 150 mA/cm² is usually found for bulk palladium. Presumably, currents above this value are required to compensate for the loss of deuterium from the backside of the active surface. Thin layers of palladium deposited on platinum do not require such a high critical current because backside loss is trivial, provided the layer is well bonded. These samples show anomalous energy at currents near zero.

FIGURE 2. Examples of the effect of current density.

4. Inert palladium can sometimes be activated by addition of certain impurities to the electrolyte. These impurities are proposed to help the surface achieve a higher deuterium content and/or suitable structure.

5. The effect occurs in only a small fraction of samples, but more often in certain batches than in others [75]. This is consistent with the fact that all physical properties of palladium are found to be batch specific, making this metal highly variable in its general behavior, even in conventional applications. Electroplated palladium has a higher success rate, although it also can be highly variable depending on conditions used during plating.

6. Presence of too much light water in the D₂O electrolyte will stop the reaction [76]. Heavy water is highly hygroscopic so that exposure to laboratory air will quickly render the material useless. This oversight explains many early failures.

In a few cases, the same batch of active palladium was studied in different laboratories [76]. On one occasion, the same active sample was studied in different laboratories [77]. Anomalous heat was obtained in each case. In fact, the author has found that once an active cathode is produced, it can be used to produce anomalous results at will, with total reproducibility.

The electrolytic method has met all of the criteria science requires to accept anomalous claims. Anomalous heat production has been independently duplicated many times with values frequently far in excess of expected error, the results show the same patterns of behavior regardless of the apparatus used and reasons why duplication is difficult have been identified. However, the source of anomalous energy is not revealed by such studies nor is knowing its source required to accept the observations. Later chapters will explore evidence supporting a nuclear source.

II.2. Gas Loading Method

Arata and Zhang [78] at Osaka University in Japan were the first to generate anomalous energy using finely divided palladium. This powder is contained in a palladium capsule, which is pressurized with very pure deuterium, generated by electrolysis. The claim was duplicated at SRI [79, 80] with Prof. Arata's help.

After this work was published, Case heated a commercial palladium catalyst in deuterium gas and reported anomalous energy and helium. This claim was also duplicated at SRI [79] with Case's help.

Both results are difficult to replicate because characteristics of the active material are critical, especially particle size and purity.

Recently, Iwamura et al. [23] at Mitsubishi Heavy Industry in Japan deposited a thin layer of palladium (40 nm) on a layer of CaO, which had been deposited on palladium. When deuterium was caused to diffuse through this sandwich, several nuclear reactions were detected, including excess energy [81].

II.3. Electrodiffusion Method

Electrodiffusion is a process whereby ions dissolved in a material are caused to move under the influence of applied voltage. The enhanced diffusion rate is proportional to applied voltage and to the amount of charge on the ion, thereby allowing the effective charge of a dissolved ion to be determined [82]. The effective charge on hydrogen in PdH_0.67 is +0.30±0.05 [83], with an apparent increase in positive charge at higher H/Pd ratios [84, 85].

This method was first applied to an oxide environment by Mizuno [36] and later duplicated by Prof. Oriani [37] with Prof. Mizuno's help. Preparata et al. [86] first applied the method to palladium deuteride, at which time it was called the Coehn-Aharonov Effect. Workers in Italy have further refined the method [87, 88]. In each case, anomalous energy is produced.

The net effect of ion diffusion driven by applied voltage and normal diffusion driven by a concentration gradient may be identical as far as the nuclear mechanism is concerned. Consequently, a flux of deuterium ions that is almost always present may aid in energy production, as suggested by McKubre [89], just as does an applied voltage.

II.4. Sonic Method

Stringham [90], with the assistance of George, pioneered use of the sonic method to load solid metals with deuterium. Other workers have tried loading materials suspended within D₂O [91]. Evidence for nuclear products was reported in each case and anomalous energy in the former study. Recently, Prof. Arata has replicated the results in Japan using a similar method. However, the method has proven difficult to replicate by other people. This method is not the same as used by Taleyarkhan et al. [92] to generate neutrons within the collapsing bubbles. In their case, temperatures of thousands of degrees, reached just before the bubble vanishes, may produce a brief “hot” fusion process, but not “cold” fusion.

A number of reports of anomalous heat using mechanically generated cavitation have been reported using light water [46, 93]. These claims have not been replicated, although attempts have been made.

CHAPTER 3

Nuclear Products

I. Introduction

Once claims for anomalous energy are accepted, identification of its source is the next problem. Because of its large magnitude and the absence of an obvious chemical source, Pons and Fleischmann suggested the energy came from fusion of two deuterons. This suggestion immediately got them into trouble with the physics community.

The fusion reaction has three potential paths shown below. Each path contributes the indicated fraction when fusion is caused to occur at high energy, as in plasma — in other words, as “hot” fusion. The branching ratio between the neutron and tritium paths is energy independent above 20 keV, but may be sensitive to applied energy at lower energies [94] and to the chemical environment as well [95].

Nuclear reactions resulting from fusion of deuterium

Reaction Energy	MeV	Fraction
d + d = Helium-4 + Gamma	23.9	<0.01
d + d = Tritium + Proton	4.03	0.5
d + d = Helium-3 + Neutron	3.27	0.5

These branches were initially thought to occur with the same fraction when anomalous energy was made in a P-F cell. Consequently, early rejection of the claims was based on the many studies that failed to detect significant neutron emission or tritium production.

Search for a nuclear product then focused on ⁴He and was rewarded by early success. This work also is rejected because the required gamma emission is absent. Helium-4 can not be produced from simple fusion unless the momentum of the two reacting nuclei can be shared between two emitted particles, in this case a photon and a helium nucleus. Suggestions that this energy might be shared with atoms or electrons in the environment are also rejected because the time needed for this transfer is considered too great compared to the extremely fast energy release from a fusion reaction. Nevertheless, evidence for helium production continues to accumulate.

The amount of detected tritium is never enough to account for observed energy and it is seldom detected at all even when anomalous heat is being made. Nevertheless, it has been observed many times, and it is clearly anomalous even when the amount is small.

Tritium detection is a mature science that is able to measure concentrations well below those found in cold fusion cells, a fact that eliminates measurement error as an explanation. Initially, tritium was dismissed as being caused by contamination from the environment. Use of sealed cells eliminates this possibility. Palladium was proposed to contain tritium as a leftover from its assumed use in weapons production. Careful analysis of commercial palladium and use of virgin material eliminates this possibility [96]. The normal tritium content of D₂O can be concentrated by electrolysis when a recombiner is not used. While this effect might explain a few observations, it can not explain them all, because most successful studies now use a recombiner. Fraud was even suggested [97] in a futile attempt to discredit work at Texas A & M University [98]. At the present time, no plausible prosaic process explains the occasional increase of tritium in sealed cells containing a recombiner. Although many chemical environments have been explored, no NAE has been identified to which tritium production can be related.

Neutrons are detected, usually as bursts, but the rate suggests this fusion path is the least used by the CF process. Indeed, neutrons might not even result from cold fusion at all. A process called fractofusion has been suggested whereby cracks produced within a material can generate sufficient voltage gradient and/or temperature within the crack to initiate a local “hot” fusion reaction [99-101].

Even though most of the nuclear energy disappears as heat, some is retained as emitted energetic particles and electromagnetic radiation. However, the amount of radiation and its energy are much less than expected based on the behavior of “normal” nuclear reactions.

Recently, and with great difficulty, evidence for nuclear reactions other than fusion is accumulating. These are called transmutation reactions and involve elements much heavier than hydrogen. They are found to occur in many environments, including living cells, when a variety of methods are used. Indeed, the more often these reactions are sought, the more often elements are found in unexpected amounts and/or with abnormal isotopic ratios.

II.1. Helium Production

Helium is measured using a high-resolution mass spectrometer. A major error involves the possibility of air, which contains 5.6 ppm ⁴He, being mixed with the analyzed gas. Such contamination is revealed by the presence of argon in the gas, which is present in air at 0.94%. A memory effect in the mass spectrometer can distort measurement if care is not taken to flush out previously admitted helium. Deuterium gas (D₂), which has a mass very close to helium, is removed chemically before the remaining gas is submitted to the mass spectrometer.

Helium is expected to reside in either the surrounding gas or in the metal structure. When helium is generated within a metal structure, it can only be removed by heating the metal near its melting point [102]. Because at one time bulk palladium was thought to be active within its entire volume, helium was extracted from the entire palladium cathode and analyzed by mass spectrometry. This work is summarized in a review [103]. The observed helium, although anomalous, has been attributed to either air contamination during analysis or ubiquitous dissolved helium. Later, measurements were made of helium present in gas evolving from electrolytic cells. At least five independent measurements [104-108] show a relationship between amount of energy and helium produced. Recently, helium also has been detected after energy production in gas loaded cells containing finely divided palladium [79, 109]. Because most helium appears in the gas rather than in the metal, it is safe to assume that helium is produced very near the surface rather than in the bulk.

II.2. Tritium Production

Tritium is radioactive, decaying by beta emission to ³He with a half-life of 12.3 years [110]. Tritium is normally detected by placing it in an organic fluid that gives off light upon passage of the beta particle. This light is detected by a photomultiplier tube and presented as an energy spectrum and total number of events. Chemiluminescence, i.e. light produced by a chemical reaction, is a potential source of error that can be eliminated by waiting for a suitable time or vacuum distilling the sample. The accumulated ³He can also be detected using a mass spectrometer or the beta current can be measured using an ionization cell and a sensitive electrometer. Because the emitted beta particle is barely able to pass through a piece of paper, direct detection can be difficult. Although detectable tritium is present in the normal environment, a residue from atom bomb tests, the amount is much less than that found in CF cells.

Tritium has been produced using several different techniques, including electrolysis, gas loading, and ion bombardment. In each case, success is very dependent on the material used. Of these, the electrolytic method has been given the greatest attention. Electrolysis concentrates tritium that is always present in commercial heavy water. Therefore, either a sealed cell, containing a recombining catalyst, must be used or the evolving gas must be collected and analyzed separately for tritium. Many studies have calculated the increased amount of tritium expected from the known separation factor [111, 112] and subtracted this amount from the measurement. This method is the least accurate of the three, but satisfactory when large amounts of tritium are found. Three studies deserve special attention because of the unique understanding they provide. A summary of other measurements is given in a review by Storms [103].

II.2.1 Electrolytic method

Will et al. [113] used sealed glass cells containing a recombiner, so that environmental contamination was not possible. To evaluate this possibility, an identical cell containing H₂O was run at the same time using material from the same batch of palladium. These control cells never showed any increase in tritium content. Tritium analysis showed more tritium in the electrode than in the electrolyte. This can only happen when tritium is generated within the electrode because deuterium quickly displaces tritium from palladium during electrolysis [114]. Similar pieces of palladium from the same batch were analyzed and shown not to contain tritium [96]. No plausible source of tritium has been suggested to explain these observations. The amount of anomalous tritium was far in excess of the sensitivity and error of the detector. Matsumoto [115] also found tritium when a D₂SO₄electrolyte was used with a palladium cathode.

Storms [114, 116] showed how tritium behaves in an electrolytic cell. Tritium contained initially in the palladium cathode as contamination is quickly released by electrolysis and appears in the evolving D₂ gas. On the other hand, tritium that results from the CF process appears in the electrolyte, with much less in the gas. This behavior eliminates tritium dissolved in the electrode as being the source of anomalous tritium in the electrolyte when cells are used without a recombiner and is consistent with tritium being produced on the surface of the cathode during the CF process. Of course, when a recombiner is used, the evolving gas is converted to D(T)₂O and mixed with the electrolyte, thereby making a distinction between the two sources impossible.

Bockris and his students [117] found tritium in a cell lacking a recombiner and using a palladium cathode and D₂O. Shaking the cell could stop tritium production and increasing cell current (voltage) could increase the production rate. Copper, from an exposed wire, was found on the cathode after the study. This was thought to occur as dendrites, removal of which upon shaking was thought to interrupt production.

Anomalous tritium has also been reported in light-water cells containing a nickel cathode [118].

II.2.2 Ion bombardment method

Claytor et al. [24], in a well documented and through study done at LANL over many years, generated tritium by subjecting certain alloys to pulsed discharge in D₂ gas at modest voltages (<7000 V). The amount of tritium generated depends on the material used as the cathode, with complex alloys being more productive than pure palladium.

II.2.3 Gas loading method

Clarke [80] detected ³He in an Arata-type cell provided by McKubre [79], which could be explained by decay of tritium produced during the initial study. During this study, the palladium cell containing palladium-black was loaded with very pure D2 gas generated by electrolysis. Nothing else was done to the cell and the quantity of ³He was not consistent with tritium being present before the study. Itoh et al. [119] loaded palladium with deuterium, coated the material with copper, then deloaded by heating in vacuum. Tritium emission increased substantially when the initial average composition was over D/Pd=0.85.

Tritium was found in nickel wires after being electrically heated and cooled many times in hydrogen [118]. The resulting hydride layer, in which tritium was found, was 20-30 nm thick

II.3. Neutron Production

Neutrons are detected using several types of counters, including those containing ³He or BF₃ gas. Neutrons reacting with these gases produce bursts of energy that are detected as voltage pulses. An energy spectrum can be obtained using NE213 [120] or Li-glass scintillation [121] detectors, which detect the gamma ray emitted when a neutron reacts with lithium within the detector. Because the number of neutrons emitted from a CF cell is so small, great care must be taken to eliminate false counts produced by electrical discharge, Cosmic rays, or normal sources in the environment [122-124]. Occasionally, very large bursts are seen for a brief time. These bursts are seldom associated with measurable heat or tritium production. When they are, the n/t ratio is as small as 10^-9.

Most attempts to detect neutrons fail, thereby adding to the skepticism. However, a few studies noted here give interesting insight about the mechanism for their generation. A more complete summary can be found in the review by Storms [125].

Takahashi et al. [32, 126, 127] measured the energy of neutrons emitted from electrolytic cells containing a palladium cathode subjected to alternate high and low applied current. Neutrons were seen at 2.54 MeV and between 3-7 MeV, suggesting a multi-body process for their production. This idea was further explored using ion bombardment.

Scaramuzzi and co-workers [128] reported neutron emission when titanium was temperature cycled in D₂ gas. This observation prompted many attempts [129] to replicate the claim, with many being successful, but with many failures. Analysis after a similar study showed the presence of anomalous tritium [130]. Emission appeared to occur most often when titanium passed through a temperature associated with a phase change. Considerable cracking of the hydride occurred, but simple crack formation did not seem to relate to emission. Jones et al. have recently detected neutron emission from titanium electrodes during electrolysis, similar to the claims made by these workers in the past [131].

II.4. Energetic Radiation

Occasionally, low-energy radiation detectors are placed on or near an active surface either during or after the study. Evidence for low-energy X-rays of various frequencies is sometimes obtained [132-144]. When energy is measured, it can be sometimes attributed to characteristic K-alpha emission from atoms known to be present. Occasionally, the radiation appears to result from radioactive decay. Evidence for tightly focused beams of radiation has been reported [106] from electrolytic cells as well as during ion bombardment [28]. This behavior is important because it indicates that emitted radiation can be sensitive to the physical orientation of the source, much like a solid-state laser. Particle detectors, such as CR-39 plastic [28, 145-155], placed near an active surface show evidence for energetic alpha and proton particle emission as well as energetic electrons, although not all from the same sample.

Energy is being generated and released as electromagnetic radiation and particles, as expected, but this energy is too low to allow escape from the apparatus. This is a mixed blessing because it allows studies to be made without danger of radiation exposure, but it makes this diagnostic tool more difficult to use. It also shows that all of the nuclear energy is not immediately communicated to the lattice, but is retained by some nuclear products.

II.5. Transmutation Products

Transmutation products consist of elements much heavier than hydrogen. These are detected using various methods including neutron activation, XPS, EDX, and SIMS. Occasionally sufficient material is produced to allow normal chemical analysis.

Most evidence is based on using the electrolytic or gas discharge methods, or a combination thereof. Unexpected elements seem to result from many kinds of reactions, including fusion between any hydrogen isotope and a heavy element, fusion between two different heavy elements, and fission of a heavy element. Abnormal isotopic ratios are frequently found. Only a few of the many reports are described here.

Miley et al. [59, 156] have studied this process in some detail using electrolysis of mainly electrolytes based on H₂O. A spectrum of nuclear products is found, with high concentrations falling into four mass ranges of 20-30, 50-80, 110-130, and 190-210 [157]. Mizuno et al. [158, 159] have also explored the subject in detail using mainly electrolytes based on D₂O. Abnormal isotopic ratios of Hg, Fe and Si were found. Although some minor elements might have resulted from contamination, it is very difficult to understand how major concentrations could come from this source, especially those having abnormal isotopic ratios.

Compounds dissolved in an electrolyte can deposit their positive constituent on a nickel cathode where it has been found to be converted to another element. For example, when potassium compounds are used, calcium is formed when H₂O is present [63, 160, 161]. Other similar elements suffer the same fate in H₂O [162, 163]. Cathodes made from other metals produce a more complex result [164].

A particularly compelling study was reported by Iwamura et al. [23]. They deposited 40 nm of palladium on a layer of CaO, which had been deposited on bulk palladium. A small amount of Cs or Sr was applied to the surface by electrolysis. When deuterium was caused to diffuse through this sandwich, a reduction in the amount of initial element and a growth of Pr or Mo was observed by XPS, respectively. The Mo had an isotopic concentration like that of Sr, not like normal Mo. This work shows that transmutation reactions can occur by addition of 4 deuterons to the target nucleus as a single event. Why Pd was not transmuted needs to be explained.

Evidence for iron production during arcing between carbon electrodes under H₂O has been reported [16, 165-167]. This method seems to be easily reproduced. Palladium and gold cathodes also showed excessive iron after electrolysis in light water [168, 169].

Radioactive isotopes, other than tritium, are seldom reported. When they are, their presence is difficult to reject especially when their half-life is short. Bush and Eagleton [170] produced a mixture of radioactive isotopes with an average half-life of 3.8 days in an electrolytic cell. Mizuno et al. [159] found what appeared to be ¹⁹⁷Pt after electromigration of D₂in a solid oxide. Notoya [62] found evidence for ²⁴Na in an electrolytic cell containing Na₂CO₃ and H₂O using a Ni cathode. Gamma emitters were also found after ion bombardment [171]. Wolf [172] obtained a complex spectrum of gamma emissions after electrolyzing a cell containing D₂O with some Al, Ni, and B present. It is safe to conclude that radioactive elements may have been produced in other studies as well, but were not detected for lack of trying.

One of the most surprising and difficult to explain observations involves transmutation reactions within living cells. Such claims were made decades ago [173], but only recently have the necessary careful measurements been done to give some credence. Vysotskii et al. [174] showed that ⁵⁵Mn is converted to ⁵⁷Fe when a bacteria is grown in D₂O containing MnSO₄. Other anomalous nuclear reactions were discovered during later work[175]. Komaki [53] demonstrated that several types of yeast and bacteria grown in normal water convert elements in their environment to the ones they need when the required elements are absent. This provides one more unusual environment that must be addressed by theory, and one more strange observation that tests the ability of the reader to remain open-minded.

CHAPTER 4: Descriptions of the nuclear active environment

A number of observations place the NAE in the surface region of a Pons-Fleischmann cathode. These are:

1. Almost complete loss of helium to the gas.

2. Appearance of tritium in the electrolyte rather than in evolving gas.

3. Observed heat generated on the surface.

4. Transmutation products located only in the surface region.

5. Presence of melted regions on the surface.

6. Ability to generate a large effect using thin deposits on an inert substrate.

Many careful analysis of such surfaces reveal a complex alloy containing lithium, platinum, elements provided by the Pyrex container, and impurities in the electrolyte, with much less or no palladium. In addition, measurements of the surface composition place it above D/Pd=1.5, as can be seen in Figure 1, and perhaps as high as D/Pd=2. As argued by Storms [72], the NAE is not pure β-PdD in an electrolytic cell nor may this phase be involved at all. At the very least, the material contains a much higher deuterium content than previously thought, which allows for the presence of deuterium dimers.

Other materials, including titanium and aluminum can support a NAE. Loading of aluminum with deuterium followed by electron bombardment is found to produce anomalous nuclear emissions [147]. Even production of aluminum by electrolysis from cryolite appears to create tritium [176]. Titanium when electrolyzed [6] or when gas loaded by D₂ produces evidence for nuclear events in the presence of nanocrystals [177]. Storms [18]incorporated fine powers of various materials, including TiO₂ and Cs₂O, in palladium films and observed anomalous heat. Apparently, a great many compounds and structures can produce the NAE, with little evidence for β-PdD being one of them.

On the other hand, palladium-black [21] and catalytic palladium [22] host the NAE when exposed to modest pressures of deuterium. However, the impurity content, D/Pd ratio, and structure of these nanoparticles are not known. Until this information is available, the role of beta-PdD is unknown even in this form.

The only feature common to most, if not all, studies is the presence of nanosized particles when anomalous effects are observed. These structures are either provided initially or they are generated in situ on a cathode surface by electrolytic action. Sputtering during ion bombardment can also generate them. Repeated loading and deloading of palladium [178] or nickel will generate such structures as the material cracks. Energetic emissions are generated by this process [143]. Jiang et al. [179] suggest that the nuclear reactions occur at the tips of such structures. Until the exact nature of the NAE is determined, reproduction of the effects will be controlled largely by chance and explanations will have little relationship to reality.

CHAPTER 5: Understanding how Pd behaves, including relevant properties

I. Introduction

Most metals react with the isotopes of hydrogen forming compounds. These compounds are either ionic (like LiH), metallic (like PdH), or covalent (like CH₄). Ionic hydrides release hydrogen when exposed to water, while metallic hydrides are inert. Ionic hydrides contain hydrogen as a negative ion, while hydrogen is partically ionized to a positive ion in the metallic hydrides. Some elements such as silver, gold, and platinum form hydride only at very high-applied pressures. Nickel is difficult to hydride because a diffusion barrier of the hydride is formed on the surface. However, repeated cycling will eventually break up the structure and allow conversion. Palladium is not unique in its ease of hydride formation nor in the amount of hydrogen it can contain compared to many known alloys.

When beta-PdD is formed, the structure is cracked by the resulting large expansion [180], resulting in many dislocations [181]. As a result, preannealing of palladium is expected to have little effect on the resulting PdD. These cracks are hard to notice, but critical in determining the loading limit [182-184]. Most elements, like uranium and titanium, turn to powder during the process, which renders them difficult to study in this context.

The properties of palladium hydride can be modified by alloy formation. Addition of silver prevents cracking, but reduces hydride stability. As a result, the same applied D₂ pressure produces a smaller D/(Pd+Ag) ratio. Alloying with lithium increases hydride stability. Both elements substitute for palladium and cause a reduction in lattice size. Addition of platinum has an effect similar to silver. Boron, which substitutes for deuterium, makes the hydride more stable, but can result in brittle material if the very stable boride is allowed to form in the grain boundaries.

II. Properties

II.1. Phase diagram of the Pd-D system

Like the palladium-hydrogen system [185-188], the palladium-deuterium system is known to contain two stable phases, an alpha phase created by deuterium randomly located between the palladium atoms (a typical solution) and a beta phase created by deuterium randomly located within a face-centered-cubic structure (a typical defect compound) [189]. The lower phase boundary of this phase depends on applied D₂ pressure and temperature, as shown by Fig. 3 [190], but is at PdD_0.7 under 1 atm D₂ and room temperature. Above about 275° C, the alpha and beta phases merge into a single-phase region when more than 35 atm of D₂ pressure is applied. Deuterium occupies equivalent random sublattice sites in β-PdD above about 50 K. Below 50 K, ordered occupation between the occupied and unoccupided sites occurs [191, 192]. The upper boundary is difficult to reach because very high-applied pressure is required. Presumably the beta phase can not exist above PdD_1.0. However, electrolytic action is able to generate sufficient chemical activity to drive the surface composition well above 1.0. However, application of modest pressures to palladium having a particle size below 5 nm results in compositions near D/Pd = 2.0 [250, 251]. One can only speculate about the resulting phase. However, other metals that form hydrides more stable than β-PdH, hence stable at accessible pressures, form compounds having limiting compositions of MH₂ and MH₃, some of which contain hydrogen dimers. Calculations indicate that dimers do not form in the β-PdH structure [193]. In other words, the tetrahedral sites are not occupied. No evidence exists for the proposed gamma phase [194].

FIGURE 3. The relationship between pressure and composition within the Pd-D system at various temperatures. The alpha-phase is on the left and the beta-phase is on the right. They come together as a single phase above about 275ºC and 35 atm.

II.2. Structure and lattice dimensions

Both alpha-PdD and β-PdD are face-centered-cubic, with the latter having a NaCl-type structure. Position of D atoms in the alpha-phase is assumed to be the same as those in the beta-phase, but with many fewer D atoms in these positions. However, location of the D atoms at a concentration available at room temperature has not yet been possible. Consequently, measurements were made at higher temperatures where the solubility is greater. Deuterium is presumed to have the same position at lower temperatures.

Conversion of alpha-PdD to β-PdD results in a volume increase of about 10%, thereby accounting for the tendency to form cracks. the amount of crack formation can be determined by comparing the expected lattice volume, based on the composition, to the measured volume [114]. In forming the β-phase, atoms of Pd shift to allow D atoms into equivalent positions, as shown in Fig. 4. Hydrogen lies in the plane, forcing Pd atoms further apart and occupying the so-called octahedral position. These positions can be filled or empty in a random manner up to a completely filled lattice at PdH_1.0.

Because X-ray diffraction is insensitive to the position of hydrogen, X-ray patterns of the two phases appear to be identical, with only a shift in line position caused by different Pd atom spacing. Only neutron diffraction of Pd-D is able to determine the hydrogen position. A tetrahedral position is available, but neutron diffraction studies show that it is not occupied at compositions available to the studies [195-197]. The resistivity behavior leads to the same conclusion [198]. A study using low incident angle X-ray diffraction from an electrolyzing surface shows no evidence for unusual close approach between deuterium atoms [199] and no new phases have been detected up to PdD_0.9[200]. No evidence exists for tetrahedral occupancy, which is often assumed to be available.

Metastable structures have been obtained by quenching from 600° C while under high-pressure [201] and by bombarding thin films of Pd with protons at 600° C, followed by rapid cooling in H₂ [202, 203]. Because these phases are metastable at room temperature and form under conditions not present in CF cells, they are expected to play no role in the CF process.

FIGURE 4. Figures showing the 100 faces of alpha-PdD and β-PdD. The next layer of atoms is applied to both the alpha-phase and beta- phase with a shift of 1/2 unit cell.

The lattice parameter of β-PdD increases as additional lattice sites are occupied by deuterium. A value of 0.4025 nm is published for D/Pd = 0.61, which is the value for β-PdD in equilibrium with alpha-PdD at the lower phase boundary of the beta phase. A value of 0.405 nm has been measured for β-PdD_0.77[204].

As many authors have pointed out, the distance between deuterium nuclei, even in β-PdD_1.0, is too great to allow fusion by a “normal” process [205, 206]. No knowledge exists about the structure or lattice size of phases above β-PdD_1.0or of nanosized particles. In addition, no knowledge exists about the complex alloy phases that are actually on a the effect of ”normal” processes can not be evaluated.

II.3. Thermodynamic properties

The thermodynamic properties of beta-PdD are very similar to those of β-PdH, for which more data are available [186, 207-209]. The partial enthalpy of formation for deuterium has proposed to become less negative as D/Pd increases, going positive above about 0.85 [210, 211]. This behavior does not mean that higher compositions can be achieved by simply increasing the temperature once PdD_0.85 has been exceeded [7]. This can not happen because the entropy also changes. As a result, the Gibbs energy of formation, which determines stability with respect to the gas phase, continues to show decreasing stability as temperature and composition increase. Hence, deuterium will be lost to a gas held at constant pressure as temperature is increased regardless of the D/Pd ratio. The following equation gives the D₂ pressure over b-PdD as a function of temperature and composition, where r=D/Pd ratio and T = °K [189].

ln P [D₂, atm] = 12.8 + 2ln [r/(1-r)] - [11490-10830 r]/T

The pressure within the a-b two -phase region is given by:

ln P [D₂, atm] = -4469/T + 11.78.

On the other hand, if a nuclear-active phase exists with a composition greater than β-PdD_1.0, it could become more stable with respect to β-PdD as temperature is increased, because of its greater entropy. This increased concentration would provide more sites in which nuclear reactions could occur and could explain the positive effect of temperature. Of course, this ideal situation does not exist in the surface region, where the NAE is proposed to occur, because a Pd-D phase in this region, if it exists at all, is highly contaminated by other elements. Nevertheless, the nuclear effects show a positive temperature effect.

II.4. Measurements of D/Pd ratio

The deuterium content has been measured using change in resistivity, change in weight, and production of orphaned oxygen. X-rays reflected off the surface have allowed measurement of the lattice parameter, which can be used to determine the composition. All of these methods, except perhaps the latter, measure an average composition of the sample, not the composition of the NAE. Furthermore, this average will depend on the shape and size of the sample, and on the magnitude of the concentration gradient. Unfortunately, the reported values have only a general relationship to the composition of the NAE.

II.4.1. Resistivity

Many studies use the resistivity of a palladium cathode to determine its D/Pd ratio. This method gives an average composition of the sample and is influenced by many variables [212, 213]. Composition is calculated using the resistivity ratio of sample/pure Pd (R/Ro). The value goes from 1.0 at pure Pd to about 2.0 at the lower phase boundary of the beta phase, with a linear relationship between these two end members. R/Ro decreases within the single-phase region to about 1.0 at the upper boundary, whereupon a change in slope is observed [214]. Resistivity behavior is different for thin films [215, 216], depending on thickness below 100 nm. This will be especially true when a thin film of palladium is loaded by electrolysis, because the highly loaded surface region makes up such a large fraction of the total in such a sample. Therefore, the resulting resistivity will more closely represent properties of the surface rather than the interior. Therefore, values obtained from thin films can not be compared to those obtained from bulk material where the value is determined mainly by the much lower interior composition.

Resistivity in the two-phase region between alpha-PdD and β-PdD should be a linear combination of values between the end members. However, because hysteresis effects occur in this composition region in the absence of equilibrium, the observed relationship may not be linear or reproducible. The maximum value for R/Ro at the low boundary of the beta phase is determined by the composition acquired by β-PdD. This composition is affected by temperature, pressure and impurity content, hence does not have a unique value. However for convenience, people use a complex polynumeral to define the behavior between pure Pd and β-PdD_1.0, a method that may introduce significant error in the low composition region of the beta-phase. Furthermore, once PdD_1.0has been exceeded, the resistivity must assume a different behavior determined by another two-phase region. Consequently, the behavior can not be extrapolated beyond PdD_1.0.

II.4.2. Weight change

When loaded to PdD_1.0, a 1g sample of Pd has increased in weight by 0.0185 g. As a result, composition can be determined using a 4 place balance. Because such samples deload rapidly, measurements must be made as a function of time and extrapolated back to the time when electrolysis was stopped using the square root of time.

II.4.3. Orphaned oxygen

When D₂O is electrolytically decomposed and D₂reacts with palladium, orphaned oxygen remains behind as a gas. The amount of this gas can be used to determine the amount of deuterium added to the cathode, provided a recombiner catalyst is present in the cell. This can be done by measuring the pressure increase in a sealed system or by observing how much fluid is displaced from an external reservoir. The method, when calibrated after the study by measuring the weight change of the cathode, has the ability to measure D/Pd to ±0.005 during loading.

II.4.4. X-ray lattice parameter

This method is difficult to apply to conventional cells, but can be effective in measuring the near-surface composition when X-rays can be reflected from the surface.

CHAPTER 6: How to reproduce the Pons-Fleischmann effect

Because so many methods have produced anomalous effects, a researcher wishing to replicate the cold fusion effect is faced with a dizzying array of choices, and must begin by choosing a method. He/she must also choose which anomalous effect -- heat, tritium, helium, or transmutations -- will be used to gauge success. Unfortunately, the methods of doing cold fusion and measuring success require skill and measurement of the effects with confidence requires expensive instruments. Regardless of how simple the Pons-Fleischmann method looks, it is a complex and difficult experiment not suited to the amateur.

Nevertheless, of the methods used, the Pons-Fleischmann Effect requires the least expense to investigate, although its replication is considered difficult. Detection of anomalous heat is the most cost-effective way to reveal anomalous behavior. However, if suitable tools are available, measurement of transmutation products on the cathode surface frequently produces fewer ambiguous results. Improved success is achieved when additional energy is added to the cathode in the form of plasma that is generated using pulsed high voltage or laser heating.

Past efforts to duplicate the P-F Effect concentrated on the bulk properties of the palladium cathode [217, 218]. Ways were found to reduce cracking and achieve a high average D/Pd ratio. While these methods were sometimes successful, greater success can be achieved by concentrating on the nature of the deposited surface, regardless of what is used as the substrate. Palladium can be plated on clean platinum [18] or on silver outside of the cell, or a suitable coating of palladium can be applied to an inert substrate in situ using an electrolyte containing PdCl₂ +LiCl [219]. This method has enjoyed frequent success. Celani et al. [253] have produced high compositions in thin films and fine wires of palladium using a very dilute electrolyte containing SrCl₂+HCl+CO₂ and a small amount of HgCl₂.

Efforts must be made to insure that the electrolyte contains the correct impurities and does not contain “bad” impurities. The nature of “bad” impurities is not well understood, causing some batches of heavy water not to work for unknown reasons. A new cell is best cleaned using a dummy cathode as a getter that is removed after several days of electrolysis and replaced by a new cathode. If a suitable impurity layer is not applied outside of the cell, a layer of microcrystals must slowly form on the cathode surface during the study. When such a layer is applied within a conventional P-F cell, it consists mainly of lithium from the electrolyte, silicon from the Pyrex, and platinum from the anode. This deposition process will be very slow because platinum becomes available only as rapidly as black platinum oxide forms on and dissolves off the anode surface. This process is accelerated by the presence of Cl^-in the electrolyte. Pyrex slowly dissolves in the electrolyte and this process is accelerated as the lithium content of the electrolyte is increased. As a result, considerable time must pass before success is achieved in a new cell. In fact, attempts to duplicate the effect using very pure materials contained in Teflon cells failed until Pyrex was added to the solution. Other chemicals can be added, such as aluminum [220] or thiourea [221, 222], which will sometimes produce an active coating and/or higher composition more rapidly. With this new understanding, the challenge must focus on placing suitable materials in the electrolyte at a low concentration so that small crystals will grow on the surface. Too high a concentration of impurities within the electrolyte will not work because the crystals will rapidly grow too large to be useful.

CHAPTER 7: Theory

I. Introduction

Hundreds of attempts have been made to explain the CF effect. A broad range of possibilities have been explored, but with little success. So far, no theory has successfully shown how the effect can be amplified and made more reproducible, even though many suggestions have been made. This failure has resulted from an emphasis on the nuclear mechanism instead of on the environment in which the reactions occur. The experimentalist has control only over the environment, with the nuclear mechanism occurring only after this environment has been created.

A successful theory must meet several basic challenges. First, a mechanism must be found to overcome the Coulomb barrier of hydrogen as well as elements having much larger barriers. Second, once nuclear energy is released, a mechanism must be found that can quickly degrade the energy to prevent emission of significant energetic radiation, which is not detected. Third, a unique environment must be identified and shown how it influences the nuclear mechanism, especially how it determines which of the many possible nuclear reactions is catalyzed. Fourth, formation of helium without gamma emission needs to be explained. Most theories address only one, or at most two, of these challenges. Until a theory can show how the NAE is created and can describe its unique nature, little progress will be made, especially because most theories are based on the ideal properties of β-PdD. As explained in Chapter 4, the NAE does not involve this compound under many conditions, if at all.

II. General Discussion

II.1 Role of neutrons

Obviously, if neutrons are involved in the nuclear mechanism, the Coulomb barrier would not be an issue. Therefore, many people have proposed a source of potentially reactive neutrons. A few of these theories are described here.

Kozima [223] has written a large number of papers based on the idea that neutrons are contained in normal materials in stabilized form. When proper conditions are created, i.e. the NAE, these structures become unstable and react with surrounding nuclei. He calculates the concentration of these “clusters” and uses consistency of the resulting value as support for the idea.

Fisher [224] proposes that neutron clusters are lightly bonded to certain nuclei. When proper conditions are created these clusters breakup and react with other nuclei in the environment. Evidence for super-heavy carbon, presumably caused by an attached neutron cluster, has been reported by Oriani [225].

Many people have observed that if the electron associated with hydrogen or deuterium could get sufficiently close to the nucleus, a virtual neutron or a dineutron would result. In this way, the electron might provide enough shielding for the proton or deuteron to enter a nucleus. Presumably, the electron would not have to actually create a real neutron, a process that requires energy and a neutrino. Mills [226] provides a theoretical basis for allowing the electron to closely approach the nucleus, with the formation of the so-called hydrino. Dufour [227] has made a similar suggestion. Both people have provided evidence for the shrunken hydrogen concept.

All theories based on real neutrons must explain how the NAE releases the neutrons or causes their creation, and why so few neutrons escape from the active region, even though this region is too small to offer much absorption. Formation of ⁴He without ³He or tritium production also needs to be addressed.

II.2 Role of phonons

A phonon is a mythical particle used to describe energy contained in the vibration of atoms and electrons located within a material. These vibrations are proposed to cause a few atoms to approach one another within nuclear reaction distance [228, 229] or to cause energy to accumulate within a nucleus [230] so that the nucleus becomes unstable. Once a nuclear reaction releases energy, phonons are proposed to communicate this energy to the lattice [231]. Besides the considerable challenge of showing that phonons have the necessary properties to do the proposed jobs, it is necessary to show why this only happens within the unique NAE.

II.3 Role of particle-wave conversion

The Chubbs [232], have proposed that the deuteron nucleus can, under proper conditions, convert to a wave. As such, it can interact with another deuteron wave without a Coulomb barrier being present. This interaction briefly forms a helium wave, which slowly converts to a helium particle by losing small quanta of energy to the surrounding lattice. This model solves a few problems, but it does not account for how transmutation products are produced and what unique property of the lattice encourages this conversion. Simply having a periodic array of atoms is not sufficient because this condition exists throughout the material while nuclear reactions are localized in special regions.

II.4. Role of “Strange” particles

Explanations based on rare particles have been proposed. These include the Erzion [233], the NATTOH [234], fractionally charged particles [235], massive negative particle [236], and superheavy nucleus [237]. How these particles are activated by or impact on the NAE is not clear.

II.5 Role of tunneling or enhanced cross section

A number of authors have explored the possibility that processes within the PdD lattice might reduce the effective Coulomb barrier. Only two of the initial suggestions are cited here. The processes are proposed to involve mechanisms that bring the D atoms closer together than normal using resonance effects [238], or processes that introduce electron screening between the D atoms [239]. Most models fail to show what makes PdD unique in supporting a fusion reaction and they do not address other kinds of nuclear reactions. In general, the proposed models have not been able to explain the rate of fusion required for anomalous heat production or heavy element transmutation.

Recently, a source of screening electrons has been suggested to exist between two materials having different work functions, the so-called swimming electron theory [240-242]. This model is consistent with conditions existing in the apparent NAE and addresses the formation of heavy elements.

II.6. Role of multi-body fusion

Multi-body fusion was first suggested by Takahashi et al. [243] who arrived at this model using the energy spectrum of neutrons being emitted from an electrolytic cell. Later studies using ion bombardment are consistent with the model [244]. Recently, Iwamura et al. [23] show evidence for 4 deuterons entering a nucleus simultaneously, adding additional support to the multi-body model. Formation of such clusters [245] followed by fusion within the cluster solves many problems, not the least of which is a method to release momentum without emitting a gamma ray. In this case, energy is deposited in the lattice by energetic alpha particles and deuterons ejected from the cluster. The challenge for this model is to show how such clusters can form in a lattice and the nature of such a lattice.

CHAPTER 8: Suggested errors and prosaic explanations

Skeptics suggest that all cold fusion results are experimental error and instrument artifacts. To prove this hypothesis, they would have to examine each well-written, detailed cold fusion paper to find a set of errors that can explain away all observations. As difficult as it is to explain the nuclear reactions, finding such a comprehensive set of errors is even more difficult. Furthermore, it would call into question the validity of the experimental method itself. To reduce the challenge, most skeptics proposed an error that might occur in one study and then assume it applies to all other studies. They do not try to examine each study and they fail to realize that different instrument types and techniques are used that rule out the possibility of the proposed error occurring elsewhere. For example, skeptics often suggest that recombination may explain marginal excess heat in an open cell experiment, and then apply this critique to closed cells in which a recombination error is impossible [246]. Or they assume a prosaic process they can imagine to occur without offering any proof that the process actually occurs in nature. From a skeptic's point of view, the rules of evidence apply only to the person making a claim, with a suggested error requiring no justification whatever. While this approach is not very constructive, serious errors do occur in any experiment and these need to be identified.

A number of real errors have been identified, which will be examined in detail below. Many more have been discussed by Storms [71].

Temperature gradients within an isoperibolic calorimeter

The first criticism of the Pons-Fleischmann heat measurement was based on a presumed artifact caused by temperature gradients within their isoperibolic cell [247]. P-F showed that these were absent by moving their thermistor to different levels within the cell [248]. Nevertheless, this is a valid potential error [67]. Electrolytic stirring is seldom sufficient to completely remove the temperature gradient. Even mechanical stirring must be held very constant to achieve a stable measurement. Because of this potential error, most recent work uses either flow calorimetry or a Seebeck calorimeter, both of which do not suffer from this problem. A second-wall isoperibolic calorimeter has also been used with success.

Changes in calibration constant

All calorimeters must be calibrated. The resulting calibration constant may not always remain constant. Each time such a measurement is made, slightly different values are always obtained. If the claimed anomalous energy is within the range defined by many calibrations, its reality can be questioned. Shanahan [249] argues that all claims for anomalous heat are caused by an unexpected change in the calibration constant because of some undefined process within the cell, but by not a nuclear reaction. An answer to this challenge rests on three facts:

(1) many reported values of anomalous heat are well outside of this range;(2) anomalous heat is frequently associated with universal patterns of behavior, as noted in Chapter 2; and

(3) anomalous heat sometimes is associated with helium production or transmutation products, which are clear indicators of a nuclear reaction.

Furthermore, a process that can produce such a change in all calorimeters has not been demonstrated, only suggested. At this time, if a person wants to reject anomalous heat, the proposed prosaic process must be demonstrated using as much rigor as was used in making the initial claim, not simply suggested.

Tritium contamination

When anomalous tritium was first claimed, it was rejected based on tritium being present in the environment, the cell materials, or in the palladium. All of these sources have been carefully analyzed and found to be free of sufficient tritium. At the present time, no plausible source has been found that explains all of the observations, other than its creation by a nuclear reaction.

Air contamination in helium

Early claims for helium production were rejected because of a presumed leak of air into the container. Since then, people have shown that air is absent by measuring the Ar content at the same time as helium is measured. This eliminates this possibility. While this is a difficult measurement, requiring a complex instrument, the growing number of measurements showing a relationship between helium and energy makes a rejection of this relationship increasingly implausible.

Heavy element contamination

Detection of stable elements is difficult when very low concentrations are present, although such measurements are seldom questioned when applied to conventional research. In addition, practically everything contains a small amount of most other stable elements. Therefore, proving that a particular element, after having been concentrated on a cathode by electrolysis, has a nuclear origin can be tricky. A plausible claim is usually based on a large and unexplained concentration being present or an abnormal isotopic ratio. Some work even shows how the abnormal element increases with time. Clearly, most stable elements found on a cathode are not abnormal. However a sufficient number of observations for the presence of anomalous elements has been reported to make the transmutation reaction worthy of study.

SUMMARY

The following are proposed as new insights provided by recent observations described in this paper:

1. Pure β-PdD, regardless of its deuterium content, is not the environment in which LENR occurs during the Pons-Fleischmann effect. The complex alloy in which the effect occurs apparently requires a very high deuterium content.

2. Nearly pure β-PdD appears to be active at a relatively low deuterium content.

3. LENR requires nanosized particles of various complex materials, including living cells.

4. All isotopes of hydrogen can be involved in LENR.

5. Clusters of hydrogen isotopes form and interact with each other and with nearby nuclei to cause LENR.

6. Many elements can enter into LENR either with hydrogen or with each other.

These conclusions are significantly different from conventional thinking in the field and well outside of what conventional physics can explain. Hopefully, rather than being rejected, these aspects of the phenomenon will be considered when new experiments and explanation are attempted. So far, present experiments and theories have not been very successful, so a person has little to lose by considering these possibilities.

COMMENTS

Science has been successful because certain rules of evidence were adopted centuries ago, the so-called Scientific Method. These rules require that many people using different devices duplicate all novel observations. Such replications reduce the human tendency to deceive and to be deceived. In addition, the behavior observed in these various studies must show similar patterns, i.e. important variables must have the same effect in all studies, regardless of the equipment used. Having an explanation for the strange behavior is NOT initially necessary, although eventual discovery of an explanation is important. This is a good method and has served mankind well when it is faithfully applied. Science fails when these rules are ignored. They can be ignored several different ways, the most obvious being premature acceptance. Some scientists think this rule so important that they base their careers on protecting Science from such a violation. A less obvious problem occurs when repeated replications are ignored because a scientist does not WANT to believe a result that conflicts with a favorite theory. Initially, cold fusion was rejected for the former reason. Now rejection is based on the latter. The first rejection was valid and consistent with the Scientific Method. The present rejection is not.

Skepticism, when carried to extreme, is as damaging as naive acceptance. At the present time, many people respect the skeptic for guarding the high ideals of science. In fact, skeptics frequently stop important progress, stifle originality, and turn creative people away from science altogether. Although many examples of this injury can be cited from the past and especially from the present time, this rejection of cold fusion is particularly egregious because of its vehement nature and the importance of the discovery. I ask you, the reader, to use good judgment and a responsible attitude in evaluating the incredible claims described in this Guide. Remember that new and strange claims do not have to be blindly accepted or blindly rejected, just explored with an open mind. Important new ideas almost always conflict with conventional understanding, so such conflict should not be used as a basis for outright rejection, before the possibilities have been carefully examined.

Attached:
A critique of this paper by Kurt Shanahan, plus rebuttals by Edmund Storms and Michael Staker
An Addendum to this paper was added in March 2011, Storms, E., What is now known about cold fusion? (Addendum to Student's Guide). 2011, LENR-CANR.org.
Source:

Instituto Peruano de Energía Nuclear (IPEN)

2011-08-30T02:54:00.000-07:00

El Instituto Peruano de Energía Nuclear (IPEN) es una Institución Pública Descentralizada del Sector Energía y Minas con la misión fundamental de normar, promover, supervisar y desarrollar las actividades aplicativas de la Energía Nuclear de tal forma que contribuyan eficazmente al desarrollo nacional.

Dirige sus actividades de promoción e investigación aplicada a través de Proyectos de interés socioeconómico, en armonía con las necesidades del país, incentivando la participación del sector privado, mediante la transferencia de tecnología.

En el ámbito del control de la aplicación de las actividades relacionadas con radiaciones ionizantes, el IPEN actúa como Autoridad Nacional, velando fundamentalmente por el cumplimiento de las Normas, Reglamentos y Guías orientadas, para la operación segura de las instalaciones nucleares y radiactivas, basadas en la Ley 28028 Ley de Regulación del uso de Fuentes de Radiación Ionizante y su reglamento así como en las recomendaciones del Organismo Internacional de la Energía Atómica - OIEA. Estas funciones son encargadas desde su creación, el 04 de Febrero de 1975 mediante Decreto Ley Nº 21094, Ley Orgánica del Sector Energía y Minas; también determinadas en su propia Ley Orgánica Decreto Ley Nº 21875 del 5 de Junio de 1977, sus modificatorias y por su Reglamento de Organización y Funciones aprobado por. Decreto Supremo Nº 062-2005-EM de fecha 16 de diciembre de 2005. Adicionalmente al presupuesto anual de Tesoro Público para gastos corrientes y de inversión, el IPEN cuenta con el aporte de la Cooperación Técnica del Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica (OIEA) y así el Plan de Desarrollo Nuclear recibe un significativo apoyo mediante la ejecución de proyectos que permiten la capacitación de personal en forma científico- técnica y la recepción de equipos, materiales y visita de expertos.

SEDE DE SAN BORJA

En la cuadra 14 de la Av. Canadá se encuentran los edificios de la Sede Central del IPEN.
En dicha sede operan las siguientes dependencias:
La Alta Dirección del IPEN

El Reactor de Potencia Cero (RP-0)

El Centro Superior de Estudios Nucleares (CSEN)

El Centro Superior de Estudios Nucleares desarrolla múltiples cursos de capacitación del área nuclear dirigidos al sector empresarial, comunidad científica, universitarios y público en general
En esta sede se encuentra también el Reactor de Potencia Cero, que es el primer reactor que se construyó en el Perú y que cuenta con facilidades de irradiación para la realización de diversas experiencias y actividades de investigación.

REACTOR RP-0

El reactor nuclear de potencia cero (RP-0) opera a una potencia comprendida entre 1 y 10 Vatios y sirve para investigación y capacitación.

Fue puesto a critico por primera vez el 20 de julio de 1978, con un núcleo constituido por elementos combustibles tipo varilla. En 1991 se le hizo modificaciones para que este reactor sea un símil y utilice los combustibles tipo RP-10. Este nuevo núcleo del RP-0, con las modificaciones descritas, se puso a critico por primera vez, el 30 de junio de 1991.

La infraestructura básica del RP-0, está compuesta por: el núcleo del reactor, un tanque de agua, una fuente de neutrones y la sala de control. La fuente de neutrones sirve para iniciar la operación del reactor. Adicionalmente, el RP-0 tiene un laboratorio con instrumentación para la medición de la actividad de las muestras irradiadas.

Núcleo del Reactor RP-0.
Se observa la extensión de los 4 elementos combustibles de control.

El RP-0 cuenta con un sistema neumático de envío de muestras, cuyo cabezal de irradiación se encuentra en la posición central del núcleo, donde se tiene un flujo neutrónico de 1E+8 n/cm²-s. Las muestras a irradiarse se envian en contenedores de polietileno de forma cilíndrica de 6.4 mm de altura por 2.5 de diámetro. Además, se pueden implementar otras facilidades de irradiación dentro del núcleo.

Sistema Automático de envío y recepción de muestras

Usos y servicios brindados por el RP-0

Los principales usos y servicios del reactor del RP-0 son para la investigación, capacitación y entrenamiento de los profesionales de todas las ramas de las ciencias e ingeniarías.

La gran versatilidad del reactor RP-0 permite hacer estudios y mediciones del flujo neutrónico dependientes del espacio y la energía, mediciones de la reactividad del núcleo, del buckling del reactor, secciones eficaces de los elementos químicos, medición de los parámetros cinéticos, ahorro por reflector, distribución de potencia, coeficientes de realimentación, medición de masa crítica, mediciones de parámetros con técnicas de ruido neutrónico, espectrometría gamma y detección de las radiaciones ionizantes.

Este reactor permite además la validación de algunos códigos de cálculo que se utilizan en la tecnología nuclear para el diseño, modificación, cambios de tipo de combustible, estudios de núcleos mixtos con diferentes tipos de combustibles, cálculo de datos nucleares, etc.

En cuanto a la investigación, el uso del RP-0 apoya a otras áreas de las ciencias. Por ejemplo, la irradiación de muestras para su estudio por la técnica de análisis por activación neutrónica.

En virtud a los convenios con las universidades, se realizan prácticas de laboratorio relacionadas con la tecnología nuclear, cumpliendo un rol muy importante en la formación académica de profesionales de diferentes especialidades. En relación al apoyo en la formación académica, en el RP-0 se realizan experimentos de laboratorio de los cursos de física nuclear, física atómica, física de reactores, física moderna, radioquímica, tecnología nuclear, ingeniería de reactores, etc.

CENTRO NUCLEAR DE HUARANGAL

El Centro Nuclear OSCAR MIROQUESADA DE LA GUERRA (RACSO), fue inaugurado en 1989 y comprende las siguientes instalaciones:
Reactor RP-10

Laboratorio de Física Experimental de Reactores (LabFER)

Laboratorios de Ciencias

Planta de Producción de Radioisótopos (PPRR)

Laboratorio Secundario de Calibraciones Dosimétricas (LSCD)

Planta de Gestión de Residuos Radiactivos (PGRR)

El principal objetivo de estas instalaciones es la investigación y el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías; para ello cuenta con laboratorios modernos que pueden ser modificados y ampliados rápidamente para abarcar los diversos campos de la ciencia. Asimismo estos laboratorios están disponibles para actividades de investigación a nivel internacional, y realizar trabajos conjuntos con centros de investigación de otros países.
El Centro Nuclear se encuentra localizado en el Departamento y Provincia de Lima, Distrito de Carabayllo a 42 Km de la Ciudad de Lima, a un altura de 400 m sobre el nivel del mar y cuenta con un área de 125 hectáreas.

REACTOR RP-10

El Reactor Nuclear de Potencia 10 (RP-10) es del tipo piscina y tiene 10 MW de potencia térmica. El RP-10 es una instalación nuclear donde se controla la fisión nuclear, que consiste en la ruptura del núcleo atómico del Uranio-235 (U-235) con una gran liberación de energía, neutrones y emisión de radiaciones. Los neutrones producidos de esta manera son utilizados para la investigación y producción de radioisótopos.

El RP-10 es operado desde la sala de control donde se encuentra instalada toda la instrumentación necesaria para que los operadores puedan verificar las condiciones en las cuales se encuentra funcionando el reactor y realizar el seguimiento de las condiciones de seguridad. El reactor se encuentra diseñado para que en caso de que se produzca alguna anormalidad, el reactor se apague automáticamente. La operación del reactor se realiza a través del movimiento de barras de control de cadmio que controla las reacciones de fisión.

Vista superior del tanque principal del,
RP-10, pileta auxiliar y celda caliente.

El RP-10 tiene: un Edificio Principal, Edificio Secundario y Edificio de Laboratorios Auxiliares. En el Edificio Principal, se encuentra la sala de control y el reactor y sus principales componentes, tales como: tanque principal, núcleo del reactor, facilidades de irradiación, pileta auxiliar, sistema de refrigeración primario, etc. En el Edifico Secundario se encuentran las bombas del sistema de refrigeración secundaria, y sistemas auxiliares.

En el Edificio de Laboratorios Auxiliares se tienen los talleres de mantenimiento y laboratorios de investigación. Fuera de estos edificios se encuentran las torres de enfriamiento del sistema de refrigeración secundario.

LABORATORIO DE FISICA EXPERIMENTAL DE REACTORES

El Laboratorio de Física Experimental de Reactores (LabFER) se encuentra ubicado en el Edificio de Laboratorios Auxiliares del RP-10.

En este Laboratorio se realizan mediciones experimentales en los reactores nucleares RP-0 y RP-10 con los que cuenta el IPEN, con la finalidad de mantener actualizados los parámetros nucleares de los reactores relacionados al uso económico del combustible nuclear, así como para la verificación de las condiciones de seguridad nuclear. Se realizan mediciones de: flujo neutrónico dependientes del espacio y energía, reactividad, calibración de potencia, parámetros cinéticos del reactor, ahorro por reflector, distribución de potencia, coeficientes de realimentación, distribución de neutrones en las facilidades de irradiación dentro y fuera del núcleo.

También se realizan actividades de investigación y desarrollo para implementar nuevas técnicas experimentales de medición: ruido neutrónico para la determinación de parámetros cinéticos y espectrometría gamma para la determinación de quemado de combustible, entre otros.

El laboratorio es usado para apoyar la formación académica de las universidades en cursos tales como física de reactores, física nuclear e instrumentación nuclear para los niveles de pregrado y postgrado en ciencias e ingeniería. También se forman y capacitan practicantes y tesistas universitarios en el conocimiento de la ciencia y tecnología nuclear.

Cadena de Medición con Detector Vertical de Germanio Silicio

Preparación de muestras para
tareas de investigación

LABORATORIOS DE CIENCIAS

Los laboratorios de ciencias forman parte de la Dirección General de Investigación y Desarrollo. Están integrados por los laboratorios de física, química y biología y se encuentran apropiadamente equipados para la realización de diversos trabajos de investigación y desarrollo, empleando tecnología nuclear y complementaria.
Algunos de nuestros Laboratorios Instalaciones e infraestructura:

Laboratorio de biología
El laboratorio de biología cuenta con equipo e instrumentación útil para el desarrollo de radiobiología, citogenética y genética molecular. Destacan los estudios en biología molecular destinados al aumento de la competitividad en la producción de la alpaca y algodón. Para ello el IPEN cuenta con un secuenciador de ADN, que es un equipo que permitirá la recuperación de las especies puras; También está en desarrollo y aplicación de la metodología FISH (hibridación in situ) en el estudio de los efectos de las radiaciones ionizantes, además se esta implementando los laboratorios: Biominería y biología molecular, con los fondos de la Asistencia Técnica y el presupuesto del IPEN se viene implementando el Laboratorio de Biominería en el Edificio del CNPRSM.

Laboratorio de fluorescencia de RX

Fluorescencia de rayos X es una técnica de análisis rápido que consiste en irradiar una muestra con radiación gamma o X, con energía suficiente para provocar la expulsión de electrones internos de los átomos presentes en una muestra. La reocupación de los sitios electrónicos vacantes genera la emisión de fotones de rayos X, característicos de cada elemento, cuya energía e intensidad se miden para determinar la identidad y proporción de los elementos de interés. La técnica se aplica a muestras tales como minerales, fragmentos de cerámica, arcillas, sedimentos, huesos, textiles, líquidos, etc.

Laboratorio de Activación Neutrónica

El análisis por activación neutrónica (AAN) es una técnica nuclear para la determinación simultánea de varios elementos químicos, con gran exactitud y sensibilidad. Consiste en la inducción de radiactividad artificial en la muestra mediante bombardeo con neutrones, seguida de la medición de la radiación característica emitida
Las aplicaciones conocidas son:

Arqueología: Procedencias de cerámicos, vidrio, arcilla, huesos, etc.
Geología y minería: prospección de minerales (oro en minerales de antimonio, tierras raras o torio en granito, oligoelementos en basaltos, ect.). Geoquímica (carbón, petróleo, meteoritos, rocas minerales, etc).
Hidrología (marina, fluvial, etc)
Ciencias de la vida: Medicina (estudios de líquidos orgánicos, tejidos humanos, etc).
Biología: Aditivos bromatológicos, trazadores estables (funciones de asimilación), etc.
Agricultura (uso de residuos agrícolas).
Ciencia ambiental: animales, aerosoles, agua, plantas, algas, suelos, etc.
Industria nuclear: Ciclo de uranio. Residuos radioactivos. Análisis de aceros y materiales de la industria metalúrgica en general.
Electrónica (Silicio de alta pureza, difusión de oro en germanio, etc.). Desarrollo de nuevos materiales.

Laboratorio de Instrumentación Nuclear y desarrollo electrónico

El laboratorio de desarrollo electrónico proporciona el soporte tecnológico a los demás laboratorios, al asumir el diseño y construcción de los prototipos de instrumentos y sistemas electrónicos que son requeridos por los diversos laboratorios. Para su trabajo, dispone de modernos osciloscopios y generadores de señales entre otros, herramientas de software, simuladores y emuladores para el desarrollo de prototipos basados en la familia de microcontroladores Intel y Microchip (PIC). También cuenta con un ambiente destinado al desarrollo de tarjetas de impreso.

Laboratorio de microscopia electrónica

Un microscopio electrónico es un microscopio que utiliza electrones en vez de fotones o luz visible para formar imágenes de objetos diminutos. Los microscopios electrónicos permiten alcanzar una capacidad de aumento muy superior a los microscopios convencionales, el IPEN cuenta con un microscopio electrónico STEM Philips-400 de tipo por transmisión

Laboratorio de fabricación y caracterización de materiales

Se dispone con facilidades para realizar “spray pyrolisis”, así como equipos e instrumentos para la preparación y caracterización de películas delgadas de nuevos materiales funcionales tales como nanoestructuras de óxidos de metales de transición con propiedades sensoras.

Infraestructura en el Reactor Nuclear RP10
Facilidad de neutrografía

La neutrografía es una técnica de ensayo no destructivo similar a la radiografía común. En ésta técnica, en vez de emplear los rayos X o gamma, se emplea un haz de neutrones proveniente de un reactor nuclear que al incidir sobre un objeto, modificará el haz según la estructura interna del objeto. El haz modificado se hace incidir sobre un chasis donde se encuentra una película radiográfica que transforma la radiación incidente en una imagen interna del objeto.

Facilidad de Difracción de neutrones

La difracción de neutrones es el mejor medio para obtener información estructural detallada a nivel atómico en muchas clases de materiales. En monocristales proporciona los datos más precisos. Sin embargo, muestras de monocristales suficientemente grandes no siempre están disponibles y, con frecuencia, los materiales de interés tecnológico se tienen en forma de polvo o policristales.

Facilidad de Activación neutrónica por gammas inmediatos

La técnica de análisis por activación neutrónica por gammas inmediatos (Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis PGNAA) es conocida desde hace muchos años como método de análisis elemental y complementario al Análisis por Activación Neutronica (AAN). Sus principales ventajas son:

Amplia aplicación en la identificación de varios elementos simultáneamente presentes en una muestra.
Determinación del nivel de trazas de varios elementos que no pueden ser determinados por métodos de activación tradicional.

PLANTA DE PRODUCCION DE RADIOISOTOPOS (PPR)

Los laboratorios de la Planta de Producción de Radioisótopos (PPRR) tiene un área construida de 3500 m² y está conformada por una conjunto de celdas para el manejo y producción de materiales radiactivos.

El RP-10 suministra el material radiactivo que se procesa en la Planta de Producción de Radioisótopos, razón por la cual el edificio del reactor esta intercomunicado con el corredor caliente de la Planta de Producción de Radioisótopos (PPRR), por donde se transporta el material radiactivo a las celdas de producción.

La PPRR ha sido diseñada y construida para producir radioisótopos, radiofármacos, compuestos marcados y fuentes selladas. Cuenta con la siguiente infraestructura:

Tres celdas blindadas con plomo de 10 cm de espesor para la producción de radioisótopos, uno para el Iodo 131 y dos para el Iridio 192.
Tres celdas blindadas con plomo de 5 cm de espesor, para la producción de radioisótopos: Tecnecio 99m, Samario 153 y uno para multiusos.
Una celda tipo isla blindada con plomo de 5 cm de espesor con varias entradas utilizada para el fraccionamiento de Iodo 131 y marcación de sustancias químicas.
Dos cajas de guantes para producción de radioisótopos emisores beta: Azufre 35 y el otro Fósforo 32.
Una celda blindada con 5 cm de plomo para la medida de la concentración radiactiva, equipada con dos calibradores de dosis y una balanza analítica.
Seis campanas radioquímicas
Dos campanas radioquímica provistas de tubos neumáticos para el envío de muestras a ser irradiadas en el núcleo del reactor RP-10.
Facilidades para el almacenamiento de resíduos líquidos activos.
Un laboratorio con instrumentación nuclear, equipado con un centellador liquido, contador gamma automático, cadena de espectrometría gamma
Un laboratorio con instrumentación convencional, equipado con un espectrómetro UV-VV, equipo de electroforesis, cromatógrafo liquido de alta perfomance (HPLC), un infrarrojo.
Un bioterio con animales de experimentación
Dos laboratorios para controles biológicos, uno para distribución biológica equipado con una cadena de espectrometría gamma monocanal, con detector de NaI y otro para microbiología.
Un laboratorio de Radioprotección, equipado con un contador de pies y manos, sistema de video del corredor caliente y sala de calibraciones, monitores de área, muestreadores de aire y dosímetros tipo lapiceros.
Un laboratorio convencional para análisis volumétricos, potenciométricos y síntesis orgánica.
Dos laboratorios radioquímicos, uno para Iodo 131 y el otro para Samario 153 y Tecnecio 99m.
Un laboratorio para desarrollo de nuevos radiofármacos y moléculas marcadas.

Vista del corredor "caliente" de la Planta de Producción de Radioisótopos

Laboratorio Secundario de Calibraciones Dosimétricas (LSCD)

El Laboratorio Secundario de Calibraciones Dosimétricas (LSCD) del IPEN es el Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional en Metrología de las Radiaciones Ionizantes, encargado de brindar apoyo para que se logre alcanzar la exactitud de la dosimetría de las radiaciones ionizantes en el campo de la radioterapia, el radiodiagnóstico y la radioprotección.

El LSCD pertenece a la Red de Laboratorios Secundarios de Calibraciones Dosimétricas del Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica (OIEA) y del Organismo Mundial de la Salud (OMS). Mantiene los patrones nacionales de las magnitudes radiológicas y participa en programas de intercomparación, para garantizar la trazabilidad de las mediciones entre los Laboratorios Primarios de Calibraciones Dosimétricas (LPCD) y los usuarios nacionales.

El LSCD tiene la infraestructura apropiada para desarrollar las actividades de metrología de las radiaciones ionizantes con gran exactitud y seguridad. Cuenta con los laboratorios de:

Calibración Dosimétrica de monitores de radiación, cámaras de ionización y dosímetros.
Dosimetría personal y ambiental en instalaciones nucleares y radiológicas.
Control de Calidad de equipos de rayos X y de medidores de dosis o activímetros.

Adicionalmente, el LSCD/IPEN cuenta con electrómetros, cámaras de ionización, fuentes calibradas de radiación gamma, fuentes de chequeo, lector termoluminiscente, monitores de radiación, equipos de control de calidad y maniquíes.

PLANTA DE GESTION DE RESIDUOS RADIACTIVOS (PGRR)

La Planta de Gestión de Residuos Radiactivos (PGRR) del Centro Nuclear RACSO está concebida como una instalación centralizada para realizar la gestión de los residuos radiactivos, generados a nivel nacional. Su finalidad es realizar la gestión segura de los residuos resultantes de las aplicaciones nucleares en nuestro país, de forma tal que no se ponga en riesgo la salud de la población.

Cuenta con las siguientes unidades de procesamiento:

Una planta de precipitación de efluentes líquidos
Una unidad de cementación para la solidificación de lodos y líquidos
Una prensa para compactación de residuos sólidos

Además cuenta con:
La Instalación centralizada de gestión de residuos radiactivos tiene una superficie aproximada de 15000 m2 . Dentro de esa superficie están ubicadas:

Edificio de tratamiento y acondicionamiento de residuos.
Cubículo para residuos biológicos contaminados
Almacén para residuos sólidos acondicionados
Lecho de infiltración para residuos líquidos
En la parte externa y formando parte del sistema integral de residuos radiactivos del Centro Nuclear, se encuentran dos pequeñas plantas de decaimiento de líquidos activos, una para el reactor y el otro para la planta de producción de radioisótopos. Desde allí se bombean los líquidos a la PGRR.

TRATAMIENTO Y ACONDICIONAMIENTO DE RESIDUOS RADIACTIVOS

Tratamiento de Residuos Radiactivos

El principio que rige el tratamiento de residuos radiactivos en una forma que garantice un confinamiento seguro, así como lograr la reducción de su volumen hasta donde sea posible.

Resinas de Intercambio Iónico

Estas resinas que resultan de la descontaminación del sistema primario del reactor, luego de agotarse son inmobilizadas mezclándolas con concreto en una máquina mezcladora o adicionando porciones de resinas durante el acondicionamiento de residuos radiactivos líquidos de naturaleza orgánica o lodos resultantes en la precipitación química.

Fuentes Selladas Agotadas

En este caso las fuentes selladas, sin retirarlas de su blindaje original, son acondicionados con concreto de forma tal que no puedan ser removidas nunca más. Los embalajes tendrán diferentes tamaños, dependiendo del volumen del bulto conteniendo el material radiactivo.

Almacenamiento de Residuos Radiactivos

Existe un almacén temporal. Su piso tiene una cubierta de material fácilmente descontaminable . Sólo se almacenan en este ambiente, los residuos acondicionados en cilindros. Asimismo, sirve como un lugar de almacenamiento intermedio para permitir el decaimiento del residuo y su posterior enterramiento en un repositorio a nivel de superficie. Sus dimensiones son 8 m de largo, 6 m de ancho y 4 m de altura.

PLANTA DE TRATAMIENTO QUIMICO

Esta Planta permite tratar los residuos radiactivos líquidos que tienen un interés radiosanitario. Su capacidad de tratamiento es de 100 m3 por año. Está compuesta de :

Tanques de almacenamiento
Tanque de alimentación
Tanque de precipitación química
Dosificadores de reactivos químicos
Tanque de líquidos clarificados

Los residuos provenientes de las plantas de decaimiento del reactor y de la planta de producción de radiosótopos son enviados, cuando así sea necesario, a la planta de tratamiento químico. Los líquidos son recepcionados en dos tanques de almacenamiento con capacidad de 6 m3 cada uno. De allí los líquidos son alimentados, haciendo uso de una bomba, a otro tanque con capacidad de 4 m3 llamado tanque de alimentación y de material de PVC. Luego de caracterizar el residuo y homogeneizarlo se envian los residuos al tanque de precipitación y con capacidad aproximada de 1.5 m3. Este tanque es de vidrio a fin de facilitar la observación y separación de los precipitados, exteriormente. Los reactivos químicos así como los ácidos y bases que se agregan para ajustar el pH, son suministrados por la parte superior del tanque de precipitación. Cuenta con agitadores para homogeneizar la mezcla y lograr una mejor precipitación. Los lodos producidos son alimentados directamente a tambores de 200 litros donde son mezclados con cemento, a fin de lograr, la retención de los contaminantes y una buena estabilidad. Los estudios a nivel de laboratorio permiten ajustar las condiciones más adecuadas para que el producto cementado, tenga una baja lixiviación y una buena resistencia mecánica.

Los líquidos sobrenadantes del tanque de precipitación, se envian a otro tanque de PVC, denominado tanque de clarificados, de aproximadamente 1 m3 de capacidad. Allí luego de analizar la actividad e identificar los contaminantes presentes, se tienen las opciones de retornarlos al tanque de precipitación, descargarlo a un lecho de infiltración o eliminarlo al desague común.

CENTRO DE MEDICINA NUCLEAR

Desde 1983, opera el Centro de Medicina Nuclear en una moderna edificación emplazada en el interior del Instituto de Enfermedades Neoplásicas (INEN), sito en Av. Aviación 3799. Fue equipado inicialmente con equipos donados por el Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica (OIEA) con los que desarrolla labores asistenciales, docentes y de investigación, dando servicios a pacientes del INEN y otros centros médicos públicos y privados de Lima y provincias.

Los radioisótopos y radiofármacos que utiliza son producidos por la Planta de Producción de Radioisótopos del IPEN.
Los equipos que actualmente posee son:
Cámaras gamma planares, que brindan servicios gammagráficos rutinarios.

Cámara SPECT marca Siemens, de un cabezal, que permite cortes tomográficos de los diversos órganos. Cuenta con una computadora de procesamiento, con software actualizado para estudios de corazón, riñón, huesos, cerebro y estudios dinámicos de otros órganos y sistemas

Un contador de pozo para investigación, que permite realizar determinación cuantitativa de la función de ambos riñones y por separado y pruebas de investigación de captación de órganos por otras estructuras. También este equipo se constituye en una herramienta para estudios de protección radiológica.

Los laboratorios de Radioinmunoanálisis (RIA) cuentan con equipos de medición automática, lo que permite ahorro de tiempo y entrega oportuna de los resultados.

Se tiene además una sala de ergometría, con el equipamiento necesario para realizar las pruebas de estrés a los pacientes que lo requieren, en las pruebas de función cardiovascular.

El personal que labora en el Centro de Medicina Nuclear es altamente calificado, habiendo desarrollado cursos de especialización en importantes centros asistenciales del mundo, tanto en Medicina Nuclear, como en ciencias afines. Frecuentemente el Centro de Medicina Nuclear recibe a estudiantes de Medicina, Tecnología, Electrónica, Física, Enfermería con cuya participación se desarrollan diversos trabajos de investigación.
Durante el año 2002 brindó atención a 17,325 pacientes tanto en los estudios “in vivo” como “in vitro” , habiendo superado así la prestación de servicios correspondientes al año 2001, en aproximadamente 1800.
Centro de Medicina Nuclear
Av. Aviación 3799 – Surquillo
Lima 34 – Perú
Teléfono (511) 620-4993

Cámara SPECT del Centro de Medicina Nuclear

PLANTA DE IRRADIACIÓN MULTIUSOS (PIMU)

Cada vez son más las empresas del ámbito alimentario y de la industria medica que deciden irradiar sus productos antes de exportarlos o comercializarlos en el mercado interno. En la Planta de Irradiación Multiuso (PIMU) del IPEN, se tratan productos con propósitos de descontaminación microbiana y de radioesterilización principalmente
.
La PIMU consta principalmente de un edificio construido de concreto armado, en el que se encuentra localizada la Sala de Irradiación cuyos muros actúan como blindaje contra las radiaciones con un espesor de 1.7 m. Es en esta Sala donde los productos son expuestos a la acción de los rayos gamma provenientes de la fuente de radiaciones de Cobalto-60. Tanto el traslado de los productos hacia dentro de la cámara como el izaje de la fuente para irradiarlos, se realizan mediante equipos y dispositivos accionados en forma automática desde la consola de control.

La "fuente" radiactiva de Cobalto-60 con que se trabaja en estas instalaciones varía según el propósito de la Planta pero normalmente oscilan entre 250,000 a un millón de Curies. La fuente se encuentra almacenada, por razones de seguridad, en una poza de agua de 5 m. de profundidad y sólo es elevada a la superficie cuando se inicia el proceso de irradiación de los productos. La planta tiene una serie de dispositivos y mecanismos que brindan seguridad en su funcionamiento. Cuenta con almacenes de tránsito destinados a albergar los productos separándolos antes y después del tratamiento.
Debido a su diseño multiuso, permite la realización de servicios de irradiación a distintos dosis y a varias clases de productos como alimentos, los cuales requieren dosis bajas y medias para la desinsectación, descontaminación microbiana, y también a productos de uso médico, que requieren dosis altas para su esterilización.

Centro Superior de Estudios Nucleares (CSEN)

El CSEN es un órgano que forma parte del Instituto Peruano de Energía Nuclear, y tiene como objetivo primordial capacitar a las personas en los diversos campos de las Ciencias Nucleares. Es reponsable de promover, dirigir y ejecutar programas académicos en coordinación con instituciones educativas públicas y privadas y sus funciones son: programar, proponer y ejecutar Cursos, Seminarios, Conferencias y otros eventos académicos encaminados a la difusión de la Ciencia y Tecnología Nucleares.

En el CSEN se capacita a personal de empresas públicas y privadas, contando para ello con un destacado grupo de profesionales que tienen amplia experiencia en diversos temas, siendo muchos de ellos expertos de nivel internacional. Para ello cuenta con amplios ambientes para el dictado de los Cursos, con equipos y laboratorios para la realización de prácticas.

Ocupa un lugar destacado, la formación de personal mediante el desarrollo de Maestrías, las cuales se realizan en coordinación con las Universidades. Hasta el momento se ha desarrollado los siguientes Programas de Maestrías: Física Nuclear, Química Nuclear, 6 de Energía Nuclear y 3 de Física Médica.

También se han desarrollado hasta la fecha 3 Cursos de Entrenamiento para Técnicos en el área nuclear, estando en desarrollo el 4to. curso.

Los Cursos y Seminarios que se imparten, enfoncan los siguientes temas:

Física Nuclear Básica
Radiobiología Básica
Radioquímica Básica
Transporte de Material Radiactivo
Técnicas Nucleares en la Industria, Minería y Medio Ambiente
Técnicas de Ensayos No Destructivos (Radiografía Industrial, Ultrasonido Industrial, Líquidos Penetrantes, ...)
Irradiación de Alimentos y Productos Médicos
Instrumentación Nuclear
Control de Calidad en Radiodiagnóstico Médico y Dental
Fundamentos de Energía Nuclear y Protección Radiológica, etc...

Periódicamente se efectúan Cursos y Seminarios para profesores de Educación Secundaria, para Periodistas y Comunicadores, para Ingenieros y Arquitectos, etc.

Se brinda especial atención a la Capacitación de las personas que trabajan directamente con radiaciones ionizantes en la industria, medicina e investigación (rayos x o material radiactivo) a fin de que puedan obtener la Licencia Individual exigida por el Reglamento de Seguridad Radiológica vigente (Decreto Supremo 009-97-EM), para lo cual se organizan Cursos de Seguridad y Protección Radiológica en:

Radiodiagnóstico Médico,
Radiología Dental
Medicina Nuclear
Radioterapia
Radiografía y Gammagrafía Industrial
Medidores Nucleares (Densímetros)
Irradiación Gamma
Perfilaje de Pozos Petroleros, etc.

Los Cursos se realizan en forma periódica en el CSEN, pero también se llevan a cabo en las mismas entidades que lo requieran, ya sea en Lima o en el interior del país.

Igualmente se realizan Cursos de Actualización en Seguridad y Protección Radiológica en las áreas mencionadas, con la finalidad de apoyar las renovaciones de las Licencias Individuales correspondientes.

Para mayor información se puede dirigir a:

Centro Superior de Estudios Nucleares Av. Canadá 1470. San Borja. Lima, 41 Telf. 2260038, 2260033, 2260030 anexo 233 y 230 medina@ipen.gob.pe

Fuente: http://www.ipen.gob.pe